Posttreatment Antifungal Resistance among Colonizing Candida Isolates in Candidemia Patients: Results from a Systematic Multicenter Study.

The prevalence of intrinsic and acquired resistance among colonizing Candida isolates from patients after candidemia was investigated systematically in a 1-year nationwide study. Patients were treated at the discretion of the treating physician. Oral swabs were obtained after treatment. Species distributions and MIC data were investigated for blood and posttreatment oral isolates from patients exposed to either azoles or echinocandins for <7 or ≥ 7 days. Species identification was confirmed using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing, susceptibility was examined by EUCAST EDef 7.2 methodology, echinocandin resistance was examined by FKS sequencing, and genetic relatedness was examined by multilocus sequence typing (MLST). One hundred ninety-three episodes provided 205 blood and 220 oral isolates. MLST analysis demonstrated a genetic relationship for 90% of all paired blood and oral isolates. Patients exposed to azoles for ≥ 7 days (n = 93) had a significantly larger proportion of species intrinsically less susceptible to azoles (particularly Candida glabrata) among oral isolates than among initial blood isolates (36.6% versus 12.9%; P < 0.001). A similar shift toward species less susceptible to echinocandins among 85 patients exposed to echinocandins for ≥ 7 days was not observed (4.8% of oral isolates versus 3.2% of blood isolates; P > 0.5). Acquired resistance in Candida albicans was rare (<5%). However, acquired resistance to fluconazole (29.4%; P < 0.05) and anidulafungin (21.6%; P < 0.05) was common in C. glabrata isolates from patients exposed to either azoles or echinocandins. Our findings suggest that the colonizing mucosal microbiota may be an unrecognized reservoir of resistant Candida species, especially C. glabrata, following treatment for candidemia. The resistance rates were high, raising concern in general for patients exposed to antifungal drugs.

Risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection in the community: a case-control study in patients in general practice, Denmark, 2009-2011.

To identify risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in Danish patients consulting general practice with gastrointestinal symptoms, a prospective matched case-control study was performed; cases (N = 259) had positive cultures for toxigenic C. difficile and controls (N = 455) negative cultures. Data were analysed by conditional logistic regression. In patients aged ⩾2 years (138 cases), hospitalization [odds ratio (OR) 8·4, 95% confidence interval (CI) 3·1-23], consumption of beef (OR 5·5, 95% CI 2·0-15), phenoxymethylpenicillin (OR 15, 95% CI 2·7-82), dicloxacillin (OR 27, 95% CI 3·6-211), and extended spectrum penicillins (OR 9·2, 95% CI 1·9-45) were associated with CDI. In patients aged <2 years none of these were associated with CDI, but in a subgroup analysis contact with animals was associated with CDI (OR 8·1, 95% CI 1·0-64). This study emphasizes narrow-spectrum penicillins, and suggests beef consumption, as risk factors for CDI in adults, and indicates a different epidemiology of CDI in infants.

The incidence and clinical symptomatology of Clostridium difficile infections in a community setting in a cohort of Danish patients attending general practice.

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is gradually being recognised as a cause of morbidity in the community. We investigated the incidence and clinical characteristics of CDI in a community setting and characterised the C. difficile strains by toxin gene profiling and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) ribotyping. Patients included in the study had attended general practice, primarily because of diarrhoea; CDI patients (259 patients; 121 <2 years of age) had positive cultures for toxigenic C. difficile and non-CDI patients (455 patients) were culture-negative. Outcome variables included the frequency and duration of diarrhoea, vomiting, stomach ache, fever >38 °C, weight loss and sick leave. Data were analysed by logistic regression. CDI patients <2 and ≥2 years of age with C. difficile as the only enteropathogen in the faecal sample reported slimy stools (65% vs. 62%), stomach ache (60% vs. 75%), weight loss (50% vs. 76%) and duration of diarrhoea >15 days (59% vs. 73%) as the predominant symptoms. CDI patients ≥2 years old reported duration of diarrhoea >15 days more often compared to non-CDI patients (73% vs. 27 %, p < 0.0001). The annual incidence of CDI was 518 and 23/100,000 for patients <2 and ≥2 years of age, respectively, and 46/100,000 in the subgroup of patients ≥60 years of age. CDI was characterised by stomach ache and persistent diarrhoea, often leading to weight loss. This emphasises the importance of diagnosing CDI not only in hospitalised patients, but also in individuals ≥2 years of age attending general practice because of gastrointestinal symptoms, especially in the elderly, where the incidence of CDI is high.

Clinical features of Clostridium difficile infection and molecular characterization of the isolated strains in a cohort of Danish hospitalized patients.

The purpose of this study was to compare clinical features of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) to toxin gene profiles of the strains isolated from Danish hospitalized patients. C. difficile isolates were characterized by PCR based molecular typing methods including toxin gene profiling and analysis of deletions and truncating mutations in the toxin regulating gene tcdC. Clinical features were obtained by questionnaire. Thirty percent of the CDI cases were classified as community-acquired. Infection by C. difficile with genes encoding both toxin A, toxin B and the binary toxin was significantly associated with hospital-acquired/healthcare-associated CDI compared to community-acquired CDI. Significantly higher leukocyte counts and more severe clinical manifestations were observed in patients infected by C. difficile containing genes also encoding the binary toxin together with toxin A and B compared to patients infected by C. difficile harbouring only toxin A and B. In conclusion, infection by C. difficile harbouring genes encoding both toxin A, toxin B and the binary toxin were associated with hospital acquisition, higher leukocyte counts and severe clinical disease.