Risk factors for sexual harassment and abuse victimization among adolescent athletes and non-athletes: A one-year follow-up study.

BACKGROUND: The association between SHA and negative mental health increases the need to understand risk factors for SHA victimization, which is important for future development of prevention programs. OBJECTIVE: To examine which combinations of demographic- and mental health factors were associated with subsequent SHA victimization, and the prevalence of elite athletes, recreational athletes, and reference students who experienced sexual revictimization. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Norwegian elite athletes and recreational athletes attending sport high schools, and reference students attending non-sport high schools (mean age: 17.1 years) were eligible for participation. METHODS: The participants answered an online questionnaire at two measurement points one year apart, T1 and T2 (n = 1139, 51.1 % girls). After testing for measurement invariance, data were analyzed with Classification and Regression Tree analysis (CRT) using demographic- and mental health variables from T1 as independent variables, and SHA at T2 as outcome. RESULTS: The combination of being a girl with high level of symptoms of eating disorders and other psychological symptoms was associated with subsequent reporting of SHA. Among the students with lifetime experience of SHA at T1 (n = 533, 58.3 %), 49.5 % reported revictimization at T2 (60.9 % girls, 32.2 % boys, p ≤ .001). The prevalence of SHA revictimization was lower among elite athletes (44.3 %) compared with recreational athletes (49.1 %) and reference students (59.4 %, p = .019). CONCLUSION: The combination of female gender and mental health symptoms are risk factors for subsequent SHA victimization. These findings, and the high prevalence of SHA revictimization is important knowledge for developing preventive programs targeting elite athletes, recreational athletes, and reference students.

Sexual harassment and abuse; disclosure and awareness of report- and support resources in Norwegian sport- and non-sport high schools: a prospective exploratory study.

Purpose: To examine high school students' disclosure of sexual harassment and abuse (SHA), and awareness of reporting systems and support mechanisms in school among students, leaders, and coaches. Method: Norwegian 17-year-old high school elite athletes (n = 630), recreational athletes (n = 307), and reference students (n = 263) responded to an online questionnaire at two measurement points, 1 year apart (T1 and T2). Leaders and coaches (n = 249) at the participating high schools responded to an adapted version of the questionnaire at T1. Data were analyzed using ANOVA or Welch test, Pearson Chi-Square test, and McNemar test. Results: In total, 11.4 and 34.0% of the adolescents were aware of reporting systems and support mechanisms, respectively, in their schools. Nearly all the leaders, and half of the coaches were aware of these resources. Among the adolescents with lifetime experience of SHA, 20.1% had disclosed their experiences to someone. Girls disclosed more frequently than boys. The elite- and recreational athletes disclosed less often compared with the reference students. A negative change from T1 to T2 was found in disclosure of SHA and awareness of support mechanisms. At T2, 6.5% of the adolescents reported that their school had implemented measures against SHA during the last 12 months. Conclusion: The results emphasize a need for institutional effort to improve information about available report- and support resources and increase the relevance of use of such systems for adolescents.

Sexual Harassment and Abuse among Young Elite Athletes, Recreational Athletes, and Reference Students: A Prospective Study.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to examine the 12-month prevalence and 12-month prospective change in reported sexual harassment and abuse (SHA) victimization among young elite athletes, recreational athletes, and reference students in three different social settings and to identify the perpetrators. METHODS: In total, 919 adolescents responded to an online questionnaire in 12th grade (T1) and 13th grade (T2). The sample consisted of elite athletes ( n = 482) and recreational athletes ( n = 233) attending Norwegian elite sport high schools ( n = 26), and reference students ( n = 200) attending ordinary high schools with no sport specialization ( n = 6). Data were analyzed using independent-sample t -test, Pearson χ 2 for independence/Fisher's exact test, McNemar test, and logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: The total 12-month prevalence of SHA was 38.6% at T1 and 35.1% at T2. Most of the participants (74.6%-85.0%) reported no change in SHA from T1 to T2. The prevalence of SHA was higher for girls compared with boys, and elite athletes reported less SHA than recreational athletes and reference students, respectively. SHA occurred most often in a free time setting. Verbal sexual harassment, nonverbal sexual harassment, and physical SHA were reported by 24.6%, 27.0%, and 14.0%, respectively. Peers were reported as perpetrators by 83.1%, trainer/teacher/health personnel by 20.1%, and "other" perpetrators by 56.4%. CONCLUSIONS: Because one in three elite athletes and nearly one in two recreational athletes and reference students, respectively, reported SHA victimization within a 12-month period, well-targeted preventive measures are needed for both young athletes and nonathletes.

Sexual Harassment in Fitness Instructors: Prevalence, Perpetrators, and Mental Health Correlates.

Introduction: This paper explores frequency of experiences of sexual harassment (SH) among fitness instructors, outlines the typical perpetrator, and explores associated mental health symptoms. Design: Cross-sectional survey. Materials and Methods: A total of 270 Norwegian fitness instructors, recruited in social media, responded to an electronic questionnaire in 2019/2020 on experiences of body appearance pressure, SH, and mental health symptoms. Outcomes included in this publication are experiences of SH, and symptoms of mental health issues based on the Hopkins symptom checklist, SCL-10; Beck Depression Inventory, BDI-1a; and Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire, EDE-q. Results: The frequencies of SH experiences were 30% among 211 women and 22% among 59 men, respectively, with customers being the most frequent source of such approaches and personal trainers (PTs) more often reporting such experiences compared to group instructors (GIs) and to those operating as both PT and GI. Women having experienced SH had significantly higher scores in symptoms of depression, anxiety, and eating disorders compared to women with no such experience. Conclusion: The high frequency of SH experiences among fitness instructors, with customers emerging as perpetrators and typically in the context of personal training, necessitates increased awareness of SH in the fitness industry. To reduce the occurrence of SH, the fitness centers need to communicate countermeasures with high level of compliance.

Elite athletes get pregnant, have healthy babies and return to sport early postpartum.

OBJECTIVES: To enhance knowledge on pregnancy and return to sport in the postpartum period in elite female athletes. METHODS: 34 Norwegian elite athletes (33.1 years) and 34 active controls (31.5 years) were asked about training and competitive history, pregnancy-related issues, injuries, body dissatisfaction (BD), drive for thinness (DT), eating disorders (ED) and practical experiences, through a questionnaire and interview. Independent samples T-tests or χ² tests for between-group differences and paired-samples T-tests and repeated measures analysis of variance for within group differences were used. RESULTS: No group differences in fertility problems, miscarriage, preterm birth or low birth weight were found. Both groups decreased training volume all trimesters and the first two postpartum periods compared with prepregnancy, and more athletes returned to sport/exercise at week 0-6 postpartum. We found no group differences in complications during pregnancy and delivery, but athletes reported fewer common complaints. Four athletes experienced stress fracture postpartum. Athletes had higher BD and DT postpartum, while controls reduced DT score. Number of athletes with clinical ED was reduced postpartum, while constant in controls. Athletes were not satisfied with advice related to strength training and nutrition during pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Elite athletes and active controls get pregnant easily, deliver healthy babies and decrease training during pregnancy and the first postpartum periods compared with prepregnancy. Most athletes and every third control returned to sport or exercise at week 0-6 postpartum. Athletes report stress fractures and increased BD and DT, but decreased ED postpartum. However, since relatively few athletes were included these findings need further investigation.