Evidence for a developmental role for TLR4 in learning and memory.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play essential roles in innate immunity and increasing evidence indicates that these receptors are expressed in neurons, astrocytes and microglia in the brain where they mediate responses to infection, stress and injury. Very little is known about the roles of TLRs in cognition. To test the hypothesis that TLR4 has a role in hippocampus-dependent spatial learning and memory, we used mice deficient for TLR4 and mice receiving chronic TLR4 antagonist infusion to the lateral ventricles in the brain. We found that developmental TLR4 deficiency enhances spatial reference memory acquisition and memory retention, impairs contextual fear-learning and enhances motor functions, traits that were correlated with CREB up-regulation in the hippocampus. TLR4 antagonist infusion into the cerebral ventricles of adult mice did not affect cognitive behavior, but instead affected anxiety responses. Our findings indicate a developmental role for TLR4 in shaping spatial reference memory, and fear learning and memory. Moreover, we show that central TLR4 inhibition using a TLR4 antagonist has no discernible physiological role in regulating spatial and contextual hippocampus-dependent cognitive behavior.

Localization of molecular correlates of memory consolidation to buccal ganglia mechanoafferent neurons after learning that food is inedible in Aplysia.

Training paradigms affecting Aplysia withdrawal reflexes cause changes in gene expression leading to long-term memory formation in primary mechanoafferents that initiate withdrawal. Similar mechanoafferents are also found in the buccal ganglia that control feeding behavior, raising the possibility that these mechanoafferents are a locus of memory formation after a training paradigm affecting feeding. Buccal ganglia mechanoafferent neurons expressed increases in mRNA expression for the transcription factor ApC/EBP, and for the growth factor sensorin-A, within the first 2 h after training with an inedible food. No increases in expression were detected in the rest of the buccal ganglia. Increased ApC/EBP expression was not elicited by food and feeding responses not causing long-term memory. Increased ApC/EBP expression was directly related to a measure of the efficacy of training in causing long-term memory, suggesting that ApC/EBP expression is necessary for the expression of aspects of long-term memory. In behaving animals, memory is expressed as a decrease in the likelihood to respond to food, and a decrease in the amplitude of protraction, the first phase of consummatory feeding behaviors. To determine how changes in the properties of mechanoafferents could cause learned changes in feeding behavior, synaptic contacts were mapped from the mechanoafferents to the B31/B32 neurons, which have a key role in initiating consummatory behaviors and also control protractions. Many mechanoafferents monosynaptically and polysynaptically connect with B31/B32. Monosynaptic connections were complex combinations of fast and slow excitation and/or inhibition. Changes in the response of B31/B32 to stimuli sensed by the mechanoafferent could underlie aspects of long-term memory expression.

Autaptic muscarinic self-excitation and nitrergic self-inhibition in neurons initiating Aplysia feeding are revealed when the neurons are cultured in isolation.

Properties of a neuron may arise via endogenous mechanisms, or via interactions with other neurons. Culturing a neuron in isolation is a useful tool to distinguish between endogenous and circuit-derived properties. We identified two remarkable functional features of pattern initiator neurons B31/B32 in Aplysia when these neurons were cultured in isolation. These features were also present in situ, but were less prominent, and would have been missed had they not been observed first in the isolated cultured neurons. The properties are likely to be present in neurons of higher animals, but have not yet been observed. One feature was autaptic muscarinic self-excitation that contributes to the neuron's plateau potential, by which it initiates behavior. The other feature was the release of nitric oxide (NO) in the absence of spiking, which causes self-inhibition at rest. The nitrergic modulation of B31/B32 is likely to contribute to the control of feeding by dietary changes in the concentration of L: -arginine, the precursor from which NO is synthesized.