OSGN-1 is a conserved flavin-containing monooxygenase required to stabilize the intercellular bridge in late cytokinesis.

Cytokinesis is the last step of cell division and is regulated by the small GTPase RhoA. RhoA activity is required for all steps of cytokinesis, including prior to abscission when daughter cells are ultimately physically separated. Like germ cells in all animals, the Caenorhabditis elegans embryonic germline founder cell initiates cytokinesis but does not complete abscission, leaving a stable intercellular bridge between the two daughter cells. Here, we identify and characterize C. elegans OSGN-1 as a cytokinetic regulator that promotes RhoA activity during late cytokinesis. Sequence analyses and biochemical reconstitutions reveal that OSGN-1 is a flavin-containing monooxygenase (MO). Genetic analyses indicate that the MO activity of OSGN-1 is required to maintain active RhoA at the end of cytokinesis in the germline founder cell and to stabilize the intercellular bridge. Deletion of OSGIN1 in human cells results in an increase in binucleation as a result of cytokinetic furrow regression, and this phenotype can be rescued by expressing a catalytically active form of C. elegans OSGN-1, indicating that OSGN-1 and OSGIN1 are functional orthologs. We propose that OSGN-1 and OSGIN1 are conserved MO enzymes required to maintain RhoA activity at the intercellular bridge during late cytokinesis and thus favor its stability, enabling proper abscission in human cells and bridge stabilization in C. elegans germ cells.

CNK2 promotes cancer cell motility by mediating ARF6 activation downstream of AXL signalling.

Cell motility is a critical feature of invasive tumour cells that is governed by complex signal transduction events. Particularly, the underlying mechanisms that bridge extracellular stimuli to the molecular machinery driving motility remain partially understood. Here, we show that the scaffold protein CNK2 promotes cancer cell migration by coupling the pro-metastatic receptor tyrosine kinase AXL to downstream activation of ARF6 GTPase. Mechanistically, AXL signalling induces PI3K-dependent recruitment of CNK2 to the plasma membrane. In turn, CNK2 stimulates ARF6 by associating with cytohesin ARF GEFs and with a novel adaptor protein called SAMD12. ARF6-GTP then controls motile forces by coordinating the respective activation and inhibition of RAC1 and RHOA GTPases. Significantly, genetic ablation of CNK2 or SAMD12 reduces metastasis in a mouse xenograft model. Together, this work identifies CNK2 and its partner SAMD12 as key components of a novel pro-motility pathway in cancer cells, which could be targeted in metastasis.

CDK12 is hyperactivated and a synthetic-lethal target in BRAF-mutated melanoma.

Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer and considered intrinsically resistant to chemotherapy. Nearly all melanomas harbor mutations that activate the RAS/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, which contributes to drug resistance via poorly described mechanisms. Herein we show that the RAS/MAPK pathway regulates the activity of cyclin-dependent kinase 12 (CDK12), which is a transcriptional CDK required for genomic stability. We find that melanoma cells harbor constitutively high CDK12 activity, and that its inhibition decreases the expression of long genes containing multiple exons, including many genes involved in DNA repair. Conversely, our results show that CDK12 inhibition promotes the expression of short genes with few exons, including many growth-promoting genes regulated by the AP-1 and NF-κB transcription factors. Inhibition of these pathways strongly synergize with CDK12 inhibitors to suppress melanoma growth, suggesting promising drug combinations for more effective melanoma treatment.

Signaling by the tyrosine kinase Yes promotes liver cancer development.

Most patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are diagnosed at a late stage and have few therapeutic options and a poor prognosis. This is due to the lack of clearly defined underlying mechanisms or a dominant oncogene that can be targeted pharmacologically, unlike in other cancer types. Here, we report the identification of a previously uncharacterized oncogenic signaling pathway in HCC that is mediated by the tyrosine kinase Yes. Using genetic and pharmacological interventions in cellular and mouse models of HCC, we showed that Yes activity was necessary for HCC cell proliferation. Transgenic expression of activated Yes in mouse hepatocytes was sufficient to induce liver tumorigenesis. Yes phosphorylated the transcriptional coactivators YAP and TAZ (YAP/TAZ), promoting their nuclear accumulation and transcriptional activity in HCC cells and liver tumors. We also showed that YAP/TAZ were effectors of the Yes-dependent oncogenic transformation of hepatocytes. Src family kinase activation correlated with the tyrosine phosphorylation and nuclear localization of YAP in human HCC and was associated with increased tumor burden in mice. Specifically, high Yes activity predicted shorter overall survival in patients with HCC. Thus, our findings identify Yes as a potential therapeutic target in HCC.

Loss of interleukin-17 receptor D promotes chronic inflammation-associated tumorigenesis.

Interleukin-17 receptor D (IL-17RD), also known as similar expression to Fgf genes (SEF), is proposed to act as a signaling hub that negatively regulates mitogenic signaling pathways, like the ERK1/2 MAP kinase pathway, and innate immune signaling. The expression of IL-17RD is downregulated in certain solid tumors, which has led to the hypothesis that it may exert tumor suppressor functions. However, the role of IL-17RD in tumor biology remains to be studied in vivo. Here, we show that genetic disruption of Il17rd leads to the increased formation of spontaneous tumors in multiple tissues of aging mice. Loss of IL-17RD also promotes tumor development in a model of colitis-associated colorectal cancer, associated with an exacerbated inflammatory response. Colon tumors from IL-17RD-deficient mice are characterized by a strong enrichment in inflammation-related gene signatures, elevated expression of pro-inflammatory tumorigenic cytokines, such as IL-17A and IL-6, and increased STAT3 tyrosine phosphorylation. We further show that RNAi depletion of IL-17RD enhances Toll-like receptor and IL-17A signaling in colon adenocarcinoma cells. No change in the proliferation of normal or tumor intestinal epithelial cells was observed upon genetic inactivation of IL-17RD. Our findings establish IL-17RD as a tumor suppressor in mice and suggest that the protein exerts its function mainly by limiting the extent and duration of inflammation.

Copper bioavailability is a KRAS-specific vulnerability in colorectal cancer.

Despite its importance in human cancers, including colorectal cancers (CRC), oncogenic KRAS has been extremely challenging to target therapeutically. To identify potential vulnerabilities in KRAS-mutated CRC, we characterize the impact of oncogenic KRAS on the cell surface of intestinal epithelial cells. Here we show that oncogenic KRAS alters the expression of a myriad of cell-surface proteins implicated in diverse biological functions, and identify many potential surface-accessible therapeutic targets. Cell surface-based loss-of-function screens reveal that ATP7A, a copper-exporter upregulated by mutant KRAS, is essential for neoplastic growth. ATP7A is upregulated at the surface of KRAS-mutated CRC, and protects cells from excess copper-ion toxicity. We find that KRAS-mutated cells acquire copper via a non-canonical mechanism involving macropinocytosis, which appears to be required to support their growth. Together, these results indicate that copper bioavailability is a KRAS-selective vulnerability that could be exploited for the treatment of KRAS-mutated neoplasms.

Reevaluation of the Role of Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase 3 in Perinatal Survival and Postnatal Growth Using New Genetically Engineered Mouse Models.

The physiological functions of the atypical mitogen-activated protein kinase extracellular signal-regulated kinase 3 (ERK3) remain poorly characterized. Previous analysis of mice with a targeted insertion of the lacZ reporter in the Mapk6 locus (Mapk6lacZ ) showed that inactivation of ERK3 in Mapk6lacZ mice leads to perinatal lethality associated with intrauterine growth restriction, defective lung maturation, and neuromuscular anomalies. To further explore the role of ERK3 in physiology and disease, we generated novel mouse models expressing a catalytically inactive (Mapk6KD ) or conditional (Mapk6Δ ) allele of ERK3. Surprisingly, we found that mice devoid of ERK3 kinase activity or expression survive the perinatal period without any observable lung or neuromuscular phenotype. ERK3 mutant mice reached adulthood, were fertile, and showed no apparent health problem. However, analysis of growth curves revealed that ERK3 kinase activity is necessary for optimal postnatal growth. To gain insight into the genetic basis underlying the discrepancy in phenotypes of different Mapk6 mutant mouse models, we analyzed the regulation of genes flanking the Mapk6 locus by quantitative PCR. We found that the expression of several Mapk6 neighboring genes is deregulated in Mapk6lacZ mice but not in Mapk6KD or Mapk6Δ mutant mice. Our genetic analysis suggests that off-target effects of the targeting construct on local gene expression are responsible for the perinatal lethality phenotype of Mapk6lacZ mutant mice.

Loss of Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase 1/2 in the Retinal Pigment Epithelium Leads to RPE65 Decrease and Retinal Degeneration.

Recent work suggested that the activity of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) is increased in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) of age-related macular degeneration (ARMD) patients and therefore could be an attractive therapeutic target. Notably, ERK1/2 pathway inhibitors are used in cancer therapy, with severe and noncharacterized ocular side effects. To decipher the role of ERK1/2 in RPE cells, we conditionally disrupted the Erk1 and Erk2 genes in mouse RPE. The loss of ERK1/2 activity resulted in a significant decrease in the level of RPE65 expression, a decrease in ocular retinoid levels concomitant with low visual function, and a rapid disorganization of RPE cells, ultimately leading to retinal degeneration. Our results identify the ERK1/2 pathway as a direct regulator of the visual cycle and a critical component of the viability of RPE and photoreceptor cells. Moreover, our results caution about the need for a very fine adjustment of kinase inhibition in cancer or ARMD treatment in order to avoid ocular side effects.

Isolation of Mouse Embryonic Stem Cell Lines in the Study of ERK1/2 MAP Kinase Signaling.

Mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells have proven to be invaluable research tools for dissecting the role of signaling pathways in embryonic development, adult physiology, and various diseases. ES cells are amenable to genetic manipulation by classical gene targeting via homologous recombination or by genome editing technologies. These cells can be used to generate genetically modified mouse models or to study the signaling circuitry regulating self-renewal and early lineage commitment. In this chapter, we describe methods used for the isolation and establishment of mouse ES cell lines from blastocyst embryos and for the measurement of ERK1/2 activity in ES cells.

Redundancy in the World of MAP Kinases: All for One.

The protein kinases ERK1 and ERK2 are the effector components of the prototypical ERK1/2 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathway. This signaling pathway regulates cell proliferation, differentiation and survival, and is essential for embryonic development and cellular homeostasis. ERK1 and ERK2 homologs share similar biochemical properties but whether they exert specific physiological functions or act redundantly has been a matter of controversy. However, recent studies now provide compelling evidence in support of functionally redundant roles of ERK1 and ERK2 in embryonic development and physiology. In this review, we present a critical assessment of the evidence for the functional specificity or redundancy of MAP kinase isoforms. We focus on the ERK1/ERK2 pathway but also discuss the case of JNK and p38 isoforms.

Functional Redundancy of ERK1 and ERK2 MAP Kinases during Development.

ERK1 and ERK2 are the effector kinases of the ERK1/2 MAP-kinase signaling pathway, which plays a central role in transducing signals controlling cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival. Deregulated activity of the ERK1/2 pathway is linked to a group of developmental syndromes and contributes to the pathogenesis of various human diseases. One fundamental question that remains unaddressed is whether ERK1 and ERK2 have evolved unique physiological functions or whether they are used redundantly to reach a threshold of global ERK activity. Here, we show that the extent of development of the mouse placenta and embryo bearing different combinations of Erk1 and Erk2 alleles is strictly correlated with total ERK1/2 activity. We further demonstrate that transgenic expression of ERK1 fully rescues the embryonic and placental developmental defects associated with the loss of ERK2. We conclude that ERK1 and ERK2 exert redundant functions in mouse development.

Nras(G12D/+) promotes leukemogenesis by aberrantly regulating hematopoietic stem cell functions.

Oncogenic NRAS mutations are frequently identified in human myeloid leukemias. In mice, expression of endogenous oncogenic Nras (Nras(G12D/+)) in hematopoietic cells leads to expansion of myeloid progenitors, increased long-term reconstitution of bone marrow cells, and a chronic myeloproliferative neoplasm (MPN). However, acute expression of Nras(G12D/+) in a pure C57BL/6 background does not induce hyperactivated granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor signaling or increased proliferation in myeloid progenitors. It is thus unclear how Nras(G12D/+) signaling promotes leukemogenesis. Here, we show that hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) expressing Nras(G12D/+) serve as MPN-initiating cells. They undergo moderate hyperproliferation with increased self-renewal. The aberrant Nras(G12D/+) HSC function is associated with hyperactivation of ERK1/2 in HSCs. Conversely, downregulation of MEK/ERK by pharmacologic and genetic approaches attenuates the cycling of Nras(G12D/+) HSCs and prevents the expansion of Nras(G12D/+) HSCs and myeloid progenitors. Our data delineate critical mechanisms of oncogenic Nras signaling in HSC function and leukemogenesis.

Tumor suppressor activity of the ERK/MAPK pathway by promoting selective protein degradation.

Constitutive activation of growth factor signaling pathways paradoxically triggers a cell cycle arrest known as cellular senescence. In primary cells expressing oncogenic ras, this mechanism effectively prevents cell transformation. Surprisingly, attenuation of ERK/MAP kinase signaling by genetic inactivation of Erk2, RNAi-mediated knockdown of ERK1 or ERK2, or MEK inhibitors prevented the activation of the senescence mechanism, allowing oncogenic ras to transform primary cells. Mechanistically, ERK-mediated senescence involved the proteasome-dependent degradation of proteins required for cell cycle progression, mitochondrial functions, cell migration, RNA metabolism, and cell signaling. This senescence-associated protein degradation (SAPD) was observed not only in cells expressing ectopic ras, but also in cells that senesced due to short telomeres. Individual RNAi-mediated inactivation of SAPD targets was sufficient to restore senescence in cells transformed by oncogenic ras or trigger senescence in normal cells. Conversely, the anti-senescence viral oncoproteins E1A, E6, and E7 prevented SAPD. In human prostate neoplasms, high levels of phosphorylated ERK were found in benign lesions, correlating with other senescence markers and low levels of STAT3, one of the SAPD targets. We thus identified a mechanism that links aberrant activation of growth signaling pathways and short telomeres to protein degradation and cellular senescence.

Extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 regulate the balance between eccentric and concentric cardiac growth.

RATIONALE: An increase in cardiac afterload typically produces concentric hypertrophy characterized by an increase in cardiomyocyte width, whereas volume overload or exercise results in eccentric growth characterized by cellular elongation and addition of sarcomeres in series. The signaling pathways that control eccentric versus concentric heart growth are not well understood. OBJECTIVE: To determine the role of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) in regulating the cardiac hypertrophic response. METHODS AND RESULTS: Here, we used mice lacking all ERK1/2 protein in the heart (Erk1(-/-) Erk2(fl/fl-Cre)) and mice expressing activated mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (Mek)1 in the heart to induce ERK1/2 signaling, as well as mechanistic experiments in cultured myocytes to assess cellular growth characteristics associated with this signaling pathway. Although genetic deletion of all ERK1/2 from the mouse heart did not block the cardiac hypertrophic response per se, meaning that the heart still increased in weight with both aging and pathological stress stimulation, it did dramatically alter how the heart grew. For example, adult myocytes from hearts of Erk1(-/-) Erk2(fl/fl-Cre) mice showed preferential eccentric growth (lengthening), whereas myocytes from Mek1 transgenic hearts showed concentric growth (width increase). Isolated adult myocytes acutely inhibited for ERK1/2 signaling by adenoviral gene transfer showed spontaneous lengthening, whereas infection with an activated Mek1 adenovirus promoted constitutive ERK1/2 signaling and increased myocyte thickness. A similar effect was observed in engineered heart tissue under cyclic stretching, where ERK1/2 inhibition led to preferential lengthening. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these data demonstrate that the ERK1/2 signaling pathway uniquely regulates the balance between eccentric and concentric growth of the heart.

Genetic demonstration of a redundant role of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 (ERK1) and ERK2 mitogen-activated protein kinases in promoting fibroblast proliferation.

The extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling pathway plays an important role in the proliferative response of mammalian cells to mitogens. However, the individual contribution of the isoforms ERK1 and ERK2 to cell proliferation control is unclear. The two ERK isoforms have similar biochemical properties and recognize the same primary sequence determinants on substrates. On the other hand, analysis of mice lacking individual ERK genes suggests that ERK1 and ERK2 may have evolved unique functions. In this study, we used a robust genetic approach to analyze the individual functions of ERK1 and ERK2 in cell proliferation using genetically matched primary embryonic fibroblasts. We show that individual loss of either ERK1 or ERK2 slows down the proliferation rate of fibroblasts to an extent reflecting the expression level of the kinase. Moreover, RNA interference-mediated silencing of ERK1 or ERK2 expression in cells genetically disrupted for the other isoform similarly reduces cell proliferation. We generated fibroblasts genetically deficient in both Erk1 and Erk2. Combined loss of ERK1 and ERK2 resulted in a complete arrest of cell proliferation associated with G(1) arrest and premature replicative senescence. Together, our findings provide compelling genetic evidence for a redundant role of ERK1 and ERK2 in promoting cell proliferation.

Activation of MEK1 or MEK2 isoform is sufficient to fully transform intestinal epithelial cells and induce the formation of metastatic tumors.

BACKGROUND: The Ras-dependent ERK1/2 MAP kinase signaling pathway plays a central role in cell proliferation control and is frequently activated in human colorectal cancer. Small-molecule inhibitors of MEK1/MEK2 are therefore viewed as attractive drug candidates for the targeted therapy of this malignancy. However, the exact contribution of MEK1 and MEK2 to the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer remains to be established. METHODS: Wild type and constitutively active forms of MEK1 and MEK2 were ectopically expressed by retroviral gene transfer in the normal intestinal epithelial cell line IEC-6. We studied the impact of MEK1 and MEK2 activation on cellular morphology, cell proliferation, survival, migration, invasiveness, and tumorigenesis in mice. RNA interference was used to test the requirement for MEK1 and MEK2 function in maintaining the proliferation of human colorectal cancer cells. RESULTS: We found that expression of activated MEK1 or MEK2 is sufficient to morphologically transform intestinal epithelial cells, dysregulate cell proliferation and induce the formation of high-grade adenocarcinomas after orthotopic transplantation in mice. A large proportion of these intestinal tumors metastasize to the liver and lung. Mechanistically, activation of MEK1 or MEK2 up-regulates the expression of matrix metalloproteinases, promotes invasiveness and protects cells from undergoing anoikis. Importantly, we show that silencing of MEK2 expression completely suppresses the proliferation of human colon carcinoma cell lines, whereas inactivation of MEK1 has a much weaker effect. CONCLUSION: MEK1 and MEK2 isoforms have similar transforming properties and are able to induce the formation of metastatic intestinal tumors in mice. Our results suggest that MEK2 plays a more important role than MEK1 in sustaining the proliferation of human colorectal cancer cells.

Genetic inhibition of cardiac ERK1/2 promotes stress-induced apoptosis and heart failure but has no effect on hypertrophy in vivo.

MAPK signaling pathways function as critical regulators of cellular differentiation, proliferation, stress responsiveness, and apoptosis. One branch of the MAPK signaling pathway that culminates in ERK1/2 activation is hypothesized to regulate the growth and adaptation of the heart to both physiologic and pathologic stimuli, given its known activation in response to virtually every stress- and agonist-induced hypertrophic stimulus examined to date. Here we investigated the requirement of ERK1/2 signaling in mediating the cardiac hypertrophic growth response in Erk1(-/-) and Erk2(+/-) mice, as well as in transgenic mice with inducible expression of an ERK1/2-inactivating phosphatase in the heart, dual-specificity phosphatase 6. Although inducible expression of dual-specificity phosphatase 6 in the heart eliminated ERK1/2 phosphorylation at baseline and after stimulation without affecting any other MAPK, it did not diminish the hypertrophic response to pressure overload stimulation, neuroendocrine agonist infusion, or exercise. Similarly, Erk1(-/-) and Erk2(+/-) mice showed no reduction in pathologic or physiologic stimulus-induced cardiac growth in vivo. However, blockade or deletion of cardiac ERK1/2 did predispose the heart to decompensation and failure after long-term pressure overload in conjunction with an increase in myocyte TUNEL. Thus, ERK1/2 signaling is not required for mediating physiologic or pathologic cardiac hypertrophy in vivo, although it does play a protective role in response to pathologic stimuli.

FGF stimulation of the Erk1/2 signalling cascade triggers transition of pluripotent embryonic stem cells from self-renewal to lineage commitment.

Pluripotent embryonic stem (ES) cells must select between alternative fates of self-replication and lineage commitment during continuous proliferation. Here, we delineate the role of autocrine production of fibroblast growth factor 4 (Fgf4) and associated activation of the Erk1/2 (Mapk3/1) signalling cascade. Fgf4 is the major stimulus activating Erk in mouse ES cells. Interference with FGF or Erk activity using chemical inhibitors or genetic ablations does not impede propagation of undifferentiated ES cells. Instead, such manipulations restrict the ability of ES cells to commit to differentiation. ES cells lacking Fgf4 or treated with FGF receptor inhibitors resist neural and mesodermal induction, and are refractory to BMP-induced non-neural differentiation. Lineage commitment potential of Fgf4-null cells is restored by provision of FGF protein. Thus, FGF enables rather than antagonises the differentiation activity of BMP. The key downstream role of Erk signalling is revealed by examination of Erk2-null ES cells, which fail to undergo either neural or mesodermal differentiation in adherent culture, and retain expression of pluripotency markers Oct4, Nanog and Rex1. These findings establish that Fgf4 stimulation of Erk1/2 is an autoinductive stimulus for naïve ES cells to exit the self-renewal programme. We propose that the Erk cascade directs transition to a state that is responsive to inductive cues for germ layer segregation. Consideration of Erk signalling as a primary trigger that potentiates lineage commitment provides a context for reconciling disparate views on the contribution of FGF and BMP pathways during germ layer specification in vertebrate embryos.

EN2 is a candidate oncogene in human breast cancer.

Only a few critical oncogenes have been identified in the more commonly occurring cases of sporadic breast cancer. We provide evidence that EN2 is ectopically expressed in a subset of human breast cancer and may have a causal role in mammary tumorigenesis. Nontumorigenic mammary cell lines engineered to ectopically express En-2 have a marked reduction in their cycling time, lose cell contact inhibition, become sensitive to 17-AAG treatment, fail to differentiate when exposed to lactogenic hormones and induce mammary tumors when transplanted into cleared mammary glands of syngeneic hosts. RNA interference studies suggest that EN2 expression is required for the maintenance of the transformed phenotype of a human breast tumor cell line.

MEK1-ERK2 signaling pathway protects myocardium from ischemic injury in vivo.

BACKGROUND: Myocardial infarction causes a rapid and largely irreversible loss of cardiac myocytes that can lead to sudden death, ventricular dilation, and heart failure. Members of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascade have been implicated as important effectors of cardiac myocyte cell death in response to diverse stimuli, including ischemia-reperfusion injury. Specifically, activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2) has been associated with cardioprotection, likely through antagonism of apoptotic regulatory pathways. METHODS AND RESULTS: To establish a causal relationship between ERK1/2 signaling and cardioprotection, we analyzed Erk1 nullizygous gene-targeted mice, Erk2 heterozygous gene-targeted mice, and transgenic mice with activated MEK1-ERK1/2 signaling in the heart. Although MEK1 transgenic mice were largely resistant to ischemia-reperfusion injury, Erk2+/- gene-targeted mice showed enhanced infarction areas, DNA laddering, and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP biotin nick-end labeling (TUNEL) compared with littermate controls. In contrast, enhanced MEK1-ERK1/2 signaling protected hearts from DNA laddering, TUNEL, and preserved hemodynamic function assessed by pressure-volume loop recordings after ischemia-reperfusion injury. CONCLUSIONS: These data are the first to demonstrate that ERK2 signaling is required to protect the myocardium from ischemia-reperfusion injury in vivo.