Environmental tobacco smoke exposure and non-syndromic orofacial cleft: Systematic review and meta-analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is associated with several congenital anomalies, including non-syndromic orofacial clefts (NSOFCs). This systematic review aimed to update the literature on the association between ETS and NSOFCs. METHODS: Four databases were searched up to March 2022, and studies that evaluated the association between ETS and NSOFCs were selected. Two authors selected the studies, extracted the data, and evaluated the risk of bias. Comparing the association of maternal exposure to ETS and active parental smoking with NSOFCs allowed for the creation of pooled effect estimates for the included studies. RESULTS: Twenty-six studies were deemed eligible for this review, of which 14 were reported in a previous systematic review. Twenty five were case-control studies, and one was a cohort study. In total, these studies included 2142 NSOFC cases compared to 118129 controls. All meta-analyses showed an association between ETS and the risk of having a child with NSOFC, based on the cleft phenotype, risk of bias, and year of publication, with a pooled increased odds ratio of 1.80 (95% CI: 1.51-2.15). These studies had a marked heterogeneity, which decreased upon subgrouping based on the recent year of publication and the risk of bias. CONCLUSIONS: ETS exposure was associated with more than a 1.5-fold increase in the risk of having a child with NSOFC, showing a higher odds ratio than paternal and maternal active smoking. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study is registered on the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews database # CRD42021272909.

Children's electronic screen time exposure and its relationship to dental anxiety and behavior.

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to assess the association between electronic screen time and dental anxiety and behaviour among children aged six to twelve years during dental examination, prophylaxis, and topical fluoride application. Material and methods: This was a cross-sectional study which included 402 paediatric dental patients aged six to twelve years who came to King Abdulaziz University Dental Hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The data was collected from September 2020 to December 2021. Self-constructed questionnaire was used to collect data from the patient and his/her guardian. It was comprised of eight demographic questions as well as 13 multiple-choice questions regarding the patients' screen time. Child dental anxiety was assessed by using Abeer Children Dental Anxiety Scale (ACDAS). Assessment of child's behaviour was done by using Frankl Behavioural Rating Scale. Results: This study had a response rate of 100%. Out of the 402 participants, 248 (61.7%) were found to have anxiety while 154 (38.3%) were not. Of all participants 274 (68.2%) were cooperative and 128 (31.8%) were not. A Significant relationship between anxiety and behavioural problems during a dental visit and the participant's total exposure hours to electronic devices was found (p < 0.001). Children exposed to electronics at the age of two years or before displayed more anxiety and uncooperative behaviour (p < 0.001). Conclusions: early exposure to electronic screens, especially for entertainment purposes and longer exposure can be associated with increased dental anxiety and uncooperative behaviour in children age 6-12 years. Recommendations: Parents should be educated about the risks of permitting their children to use electronic devices and encouraged to replace such devices with activities that incorporate physical activity.

Prevalence and risk factors of molar incisor hypomineralization in the Middle East: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Objectives: Molar incisor hypomineralization (MIH) is a growing global concern. Herein, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence and associated factors/risk factors of MIH in the Middle East (ME). Methods: This systematic review and meta-analysis included studies on children with at least one first permanent molar affected by MIH, aged 5-18 years, without syndromes or congenital anomalies, and residing in the ME and included cross-sectional, case-control, and cohort studies. Keywords related to MIH and ME countries were systematically searched until January 10, 2021 in four databases, PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, and the Cochrane Library, following the specified eligibility criteria. The Joanna Briggs Institute quality assessment tool was used to evaluate all included studies. Meta-analyses were conducted to assess the effect of risk factors. The study protocol was registered on the PROSPERO International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (Registration No. 247391). Results: After screening 4,373 documents, 29 eligible studies with a total of 32,636 children aged 7-12 years were included from 11 countries. The frequency of MIH reported in the ME ranged from 2.3% to 40.7%, with a mean prevalence of 15.05%. Pregnancy and early childhood illnesses (odds ratio [OR]: 2.26, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.91-2.68; P < 0.001) and factors related to delivery (OR: 2.4, 95% CI: 1.55-3.72; P < 0.001) were statically significantly associated with MIH. Conclusion: The mean prevalence of MIH in ME aligns with the global MIH prevalence rate. Illnesses and delivery complications are risk factors that could be controlled to prevent MIH. As included studies showed high heterogeneity in the meta-analyses, further evidence from the ME is needed to assess the prevalence and other associated environmental risk factors for MIH.

Effectiveness of MI Varnish™ and PreviDent® Varnish in Noncavitated Interproximal Lesions: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Aim: Evaluating the remineralization efficacy of noncavitated proximal incipient lesions with Colgate® PreviDent® and MI™ varnishes in comparison to the industry standard (1.23%) acidulated phosphate fluoride (APF) gel. Study design: Parallel randomized controlled, multicenter, single-blinded trial. Materials and methods: By flipping a coin, 18 patients with 91 lesions were divided into three groups. The Colgate® PreviDent (n = 33), MI varnish (n = 30), and control (APF gel) groups (n = 28) were identified as the three arms. We conducted an initial assessment and therapy as well as follow-ups at 3 and 6 months to evaluate the course of the caries lesion. Results and statistics: Caries progression was significantly reduced on treated surfaces across both groups. Nine surfaces in the Colgate® PreviDent® group with white spots and dryness did not change, one surface turned into a white patch without dryness, and another surface changed to a sound surface; only two surfaces were discontinued from treatment (restored) due to a misdiagnosis by the operator (n = 2). Nine of the surfaces in the MI™ group maintained their white patches with dryness, whereas one developed a new white patch that was not dry. Only MI varnish™-treated teeth exhibited dramatic radiographic improvement. Caries on the outside enamel were either unchanged or restored to healthy levels. Caries on the inner surface of the enamel also did not change. Conclusion: Remineralizing noncavitated early-stage lesions may be done with both MI™ and Colgate® PreviDent® varnishes. Despite this, radiographic results did not vary significantly across the three groups. In situations of rather advanced incipient caries seen on radiographs, the MI varnish™ might be recommended. How to cite this article: Helal N, Azzahrani GS, Azzouz LZ. Effectiveness of MI VarnishTM and PreviDent® Varnish in Noncavitated Interproximal Lesions: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Int J Clin Pediatr Dent 2023;16(5):751-757.

Clinical and radiographic evaluation of triple antibiotic paste pulp therapy compared to Vitapex pulpectomy in non-vital primary molars.

OBJECTIVES: This study compared and evaluated the clinical and radiographic efficacy of non-instrumentation triple antibiotic paste pulp therapy and Vitapex pulpectomy in non-vital primary molars. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Healthy, 5-9 years old children with at least one non-vital primary molar were included in the study. Molars were divided into two groups based on the subject's cooperation level. In the first group, molars received triple antibiotic paste, and a second group received Vitapex pulpectomy followed by a stainless-steel crown. Triple antibiotic paste was freshly prepared and proportioned in equal parts by volume (metronidazole, minocycline, and ciprofloxacin = 1:1:1) before the scheduled treatment. A clinical and radiographic examination was performed by two trained and calibrated pediatric dentists at the pre-operative baseline and the 6- and 12-month follow-up visits. RESULTS: A total of 28 molars received triple antibiotic paste pulp therapy and 20 received Vitapex pulpectomy. At the 6-month follow-up, the success rate among the molars in the triple antibiotic paste group was clinically (92.85%) and radiographically (85.71%) higher compared to the Vitapex group (91.67%, 62.50% respectively) with p = 0.89 and 0.55 respectively. At the 12-month follow-up, the molars in the triple antibiotic paste group showed lower clinical (95.45%) but higher radiographic success rate (72.73%) compared to the Vitapex group (100% and 62.50%) with (p = 0.85 and 0.47) respectively. None of the differences were statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Both triple antibiotic paste and Vitapex can be clinically and radiographically effective in treating non-vital primary molars.

Prevalence and characteristics of autistic children attending autism centres in 2 major cities in Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the prevalence and characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)-affected children attending autistic centers in 2 major cities in Saudi Arabia. METHODS: A cross-sectional study, including ASD centers and schools (37 centers) in Makkah and Jeddah, Saudi Arabia was conducted between January and March 2020. Data were collected from records and parents of children with ASD using a questionnaire on sociodemographic, family history, consanguinity, severity, and maternal risk factors. RESULTS: All centers in Makkah and Jeddah participated, with a total of 1,023 ASD children. The prevalence of ASD was 2.618 per 1,000 children for Jeddah, 3.68 per 1,000 children for Makkah and 2.81 per 1,000 children for both Jeddah and Makkah. There was no statistically significant relationship between the severity of ASD and sociodemographic, family and maternal risk factors. However, there was statistically significant relationship between severe ASD and ASD family history (p=0.029, OR: 3.46 and 95% CI 1.14 to 10.5). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of ASD in Makkah and Jeddah was lower than the global prevalence of ASD. Individuals with a family history of ASD were more likely to have more severe ASD.

Effect of Environmental Tobacco Smoke on Children's Anxiety and Behavior in Dental Clinics, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) has been linked to behavioral problems, but no study has assessed its relationship with dental anxiety. Therefore, this study's goal is to assess the relation between ETS and both behavioral problems and dental anxiety among children. METHODS: The study sample was collected from two centres in Jeddah from October 2019 to January 2020. Inclusion criteria included healthy 5-16-year-old children having their first dental visit with no emergency complaint. The questionnaire including general information, ETS exposure, the child's anxiety using the Abeer Children Dental Anxiety Scale (ACDAS) and dental behavior using the Frankl Behavioral Rating Scale. RESULTS: Of 500 children, 337 (67.4% response rate) responded to the questionnaire, among whom 201 (59.6%) had been exposed to passive smoking compared to 136 (40.4%) who had not. Exposed children had a statistically significantly greater tendency to develop anxiety (p = 0.002) and demonstrate uncooperative behavior (p = 0.006). Generalized linear mode and binary regression analyses suggested that ETS has a statistically significant effect on children's dental anxiety and behavior (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Children exposed to ETS demonstrated statistically significantly higher anxiety levels and uncooperative behavior in the dental clinic compared to those who were not exposed.

Prevalence and Parental Attitude Toward Nitrous-Oxide and Papoose-Board Use in Two Dental Referral Centers in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Parental preferences and attitudes strongly influence dentists' choices for managing children's behavior in clinics. This study aimed to assess parental attitudes toward two behavior management technique (BMTs)-nitrous oxide (N2O) sedation and/or protective passive stabilization by papoose board (PB)-before and after their children received dental treatment at two referral centers in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. METHODS: Participants were parents of healthy children who required dental treatment under N2O and/or PB over an 18-month period. Before and after dental treatment, parents answered a questionnaire on their attitudes toward BMTs used on their children. Parents were divided into three groups: Group 1 (parents of children who received N2O), Group 2 (parents of children who received PB), and Group 3 (parents of children who received both N2O and PB). RESULTS: Out of the 132 parents who answered the questionnaire, 106 (80.3%) were in Group 1, 10 (7.6%) in Group 2, and 16 (12.1%) in Group 3. More children of parents with low monthly family incomes were in Group 3 than Group 1 compared to other family-incomes. CONCLUSION: Parental attitudes toward N2O and/or PB improved after their children experienced BMTs. The future use of PB alone with their child's sibling was parents' least preferred BMT (p = 0.001).

Students' perceptions of the educational environment at King Abdulaziz University Faculty of Dentistry (KAUFD): a cross sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Prior research studies have found that dental students' educational environment has an impact on their academic achievement. Therefore, the aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess dental students' perceptions of the educational environment at King Abdulaziz University Faculty of Dentistry (KAUFD) in Saudi Arabia. METHODS: Second-, third-, and fourth-year dental students at KAUFD, responded to the Dundee Ready Education Environment Measure (DREEM) in October 2017. It consists of five subscales: students' perceptions of learning, students' perceptions of teachers, students' academic self-perceptions, students' perceptions of the atmosphere, and students' social self-perceptions. The overall mean value was calculated. RESULTS: A total of 217 dental students responded to the questionnaire (92 males, 125 females); the response rate was 43.40%. The overall mean DREEM score was 125, which is considered "more positive than negative." The mean DREEM score was higher for females (128.73) than for males (120.13). Third-year students (137.99) obtained higher mean scores compared to fourth-year (121.42) and fifth-year students (115.94). CONCLUSIONS: Dental students' perceptions of the educational environment at KAUFD support the findings of national and international studies. Students in the preclinical dental academic year (third year) obtained the highest DREEM score, when compared to those who belonged to the clinical academic years. Therefore, a personal development program and good support systems must be emphasized for clinical-year students.

Parental Preference for Parental Separation and Their Satisfaction Regarding Their Children Dental Treatment in Pediatric Dental Clinics in Saudi Arabia.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: Behavior management of child dental patients is essential for the provision of high-quality dental care and is influenced by parental preference. Therefore, this cross-sectional study aimed to assess parental satisfaction regarding dental treatment and different behavior management methods used with their children in a pediatric dental specialty setting at King Abdulaziz University Dental Hospital (KAUDH) in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. In addition, it aimed to assess parental preference for parental separation and factors related to their preference. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All parents of children attending the pediatric dental clinic at KAUDH in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia from September 2017 to June 2018 were included in this study. They were interviewed over the phone and were asked to complete a questionnaire on their acceptance of the behavior management techniques used with their children and their satisfaction with the treatment provided. RESULTS: Of 549 parents, 283 agreed to participate (51.5% response rate). In 254 (89.7%) cases communication and communicative guidance were used, whereas 38 (13.4%) cases involved the use of N2O. Parental separation was preferred by 68 (24%) parents, and not preferred by 215 (76%). No significant relation was anticipated between the covariance and the dependent factor of parental preference (P > 0.05). The main reason for parents not preferring parental separation was "safety and protection," as reported by 106 parents. On the contrary, the main reason for parental preference for separation was to "improve child's behavior." CONCLUSION: Parental satisfaction with the treatment outcome and behavior management methods was found to be acceptable. Most parents did not prefer parental separation, primarily because of concerns regarding safety and protection.

The effect of brushing with Salvadora persica (miswak) sticks on salivary Streptococcus mutans and plaque levels in children: a clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the randomized double-blinded clinical trial was to evaluate the effect of tooth brushing with Salvadora persica (miswak) sticks on Streptococcus mutans count and the mean plaque score relative to brushing with fluoridated tooth paste (FTP). METHODS: Our sample included 94 healthy, high caries-risk, 8 to 9-year-old students recruited from a government school, in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia between February and April 2016. Subjects were randomly grouped into test (provided with miswak sticks) and control groups (provided with FTP and soft brushes). Both groups were introduced to a preparatory period (PPP) of 3 weeks. Plaque score and saliva sampling were conducted prior to the PPP and in follow-up visits by a single, calibrated and blinded dentist. RESULTS: Both groups showed a statistically significant decrease in the mean plaque score across the study (P = 0.007 and P = 0.001, respectively). In addition, subjects in the test group with abundant S. sanguinis increased from zero to six after 3 months. CONCLUSIONS: Salvadora Persica (miswak) and brushing with FTP significantly reduced plaque scores among school children. In addition, Salvadora persica was found to change the proportions of salivary bacteria in favor of species with less risk of inducing caries. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov ID #: NCT04137393.

Parental acceptance of the utilization of silver diamine fluoride on their child's primary and permanent teeth.

Purpose: Silver diamine fluoride (SDF) is an effective caries control agent. The aim of our study was to investigate the parental acceptance of the utilization of SDF on their child's primary and permanent teeth and to determine the factors that influence their decision-making. Patients and methods: This descriptive cross-sectional study included parents of healthy children aged 12 years and younger and currently receiving dental treatment. The interview questionnaire was conducted and pre-tested for face and content validity. The trained interviewing dentists showed colored pictures of primary and permanent teeth before and after receiving SDF treatment. The statistical significance was set at P<0.05. Results: A total of 104 parents were included in the study. The mean parental rating of treatment acceptability of the staining associated with SDF was 3.9±1.95. The plurality considered the staining caused by SDF treatment strongly not acceptable 46 (43.4%). Parental acceptance of SDF treatment was significantly affected by the location and type of teeth. Parents showed significantly higher acceptance of SDF treatment on their child's primary compared to permanent teeth and posterior compared to anterior in both dentitions (P<0.001). In addition, parents of children with a history of uncooperative behavior during previous dental treatment were significantly more accepting of SDF treatment regardless of the type and location of the teeth. Conclusion: Parental acceptance of SDF increased for primary compared to permanent teeth, on anterior compared to posterior teeth in both dentitions and for uncooperative children.

A comparison of calcium hydroxide/iodoform paste and zinc oxide eugenol as root filling materials for pulpectomy in primary teeth: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Zinc oxide eugenol (ZOE) has traditionally been used as a root filling material in primary teeth pulpectomy. Calcium hydroxide and iodoform (Ca(OH)2/iodoform) may have advantages as a root canal filling material to evaluate treatment success of Ca(OH)2/iodoform pulpectomy in primary teeth compared with ZOE based on clinical and radiographical criteria. All human clinical studies reporting clinical and radiographical outcomes of Ca(OH)2/iodoform compared with ZOE in primary teeth pulpectomy were identified in digital bibliographic databases. Two authors independently selected studies and extracted relevant study characteristics. Success of treatment was based on an accomplishment of specific clinical and radiographical criteria. Meta-analyses were performed to appraise study heterogeneity and aggregated statistics. Out of 5,000 articles identified in initial search, 15 articles met all inclusion criteria, while 10 were included in the meta-analyses. At 6- and 12-month follow-up, there were no statistically significant differences in the clinical and radiographical success rates of Ca(OH)2/iodoform and ZOE. However, ZOE was shown to have statistically significant higher success rates at ≥18-month follow-up. On the basis of the findings of this systematic review, we recommend that Ca(OH)2/iodoform be utilized for pulpectomy in primary teeth nearing exfoliation; conversely, ZOE should be utilized when exfoliation is not expected to occur soon. Future randomized control clinical trials with a long-term follow-up are needed before a reliable conclusion can be drawn as to the best pulpectomy material. The success of pulpectomy in primary teeth depends on selecting the ideal root canal filling material. It is challenging to select the appropriate filling materials for primary teeth. ZOE or ZOE/iodoform combined with Ca(OH)2 appears to be the materials of choice if primary teeth are not nearing exfoliation. More high-quality randomized control clinical trials with a long-term follow-up period are needed before a reliable conclusion can be drawn as to the best pulpectomy material in primary teeth (systematic review registration number: CRD42016037563).

Knowledge, Attitude, and Behavior of Restorative, Orthodontic, and Pediatric Departments' Members toward Bisphenol A Dental Exposures.

AIM AND OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study is to evaluate the knowledge, attitude, and behavior of Restorative, Orthodontic, and Pediatric Dentistry Departments' members at King Abdulaziz University (KAU), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, toward bisphenol A (BPA) dental exposure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A survey was pretested for face and content validity. It included ten knowledge-, four attitude-, and five behavior-based items. The collected data were analyzed using Windows SPSS software version 22 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Significant levels were set at 0.05. RESULTS: A total of 109 members participated in this study. Most of them (80 [73.4]) had never attended a lecture or read an article on BPA dental exposure previously. The restorative department members showed the highest (mean ± standard deviation score) in knowledge-based questions (3.32 ± 3.323), and those who reported that they had heard of BPA previously, read an article, or attended a lecture on BPA received significantly higher mean knowledge scores (P < 0.0001). The pediatric dentistry departments' members showed significantly higher agreements to attitude questions. Only ten participants (9.2%) followed the recommended guidelines to reduce patients' exposure to BPA during the application of BPA-containing dental materials. CONCLUSIONS: Reading an article or attending a lecture on BPA significantly improves the knowledge scores. Therefore, there is a need to increase the awareness on BPA dental exposure among different departments' members in KAU to ensure that BPA exposure to patients is minimized and to ensure the spread of this knowledge to the dental students.

Consequences of early extraction of compromised first permanent molar: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to systematically review the literature to determine the sequelae of early extraction of compromised first permanent molars (FPMs) with regard to the skeletal and dental development of 5- to 15-year-old children. Meta-analysis was conducted when applicable. METHODS: Our research protocol included a search strategy, inclusion/exclusion criteria, and a data extraction plan. The search engines used were PubMed, Scopus, and Science Direct. Study selection was performed independently by three reviewers. Articles published from 1960 to 2017 were reviewed based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Meta-analysis was performed to compare space closure between upper and lower arches. RESULTS: Eleven studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The consequences were decrease in post extraction space, accelerated development and eruption of second permanents molars (SPMs) and third molars, a decrease in caries and/or fillings on the proximal surfaces of adjacent teeth, lingual tipping and retrusion of incisors, and counter clockwise rotation of the occlusal plane. CONCLUSION: There were several consequences of early extraction of FPMs, which were related to skeletal and dental development. Our systematic review suggests that comprehensive evaluation of the compromised FPMs should be performed before planning an extraction. The ideal time for FPM extraction is when the SPM is at the early bifurcation stage in order to achieve complete closure of the extraction space by the SPM. Benefits should be weighed over the risks to decrease the risk of unfavorable outcomes as much as possible. However, due to the limited evidence on the outcomes and variables that influence them, high-quality prospective studies are needed.

Environmental Risk Factors in the Etiology of Nonsyndromic Orofacial Clefts in the Western Region of Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVES: Nonsyndromic orofacial cleft (NSOFC) etiology is multifactorial and heterogeneous. This study aimed to identify environmental risk factors related to NSOFC in the Western Region of Saudi Arabia. METHODS: A case-control study carried out in seven hospitals in two main cities (Jeddah and Maddina) over 2 years on parents of 112 infants with NSOFC (infants were also examined) and 138 infant controls, matched for age (<18 months), gender, and location, completed a questionnaire on 3-month pregestation and first trimester events. RESULTS: There was significantly increased NSOFC risk with twin pregnancies (P = .01, odds ratio [OR] = 9.5, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.15 to 78.4), maternal antibiotic use (P = .021, OR = 2.71, 95% CI: 1.11 to 6.62), antiemetic medication (P = .005, OR = 2.85, 95% CI: 1.3 to 6), severe morning sickness (P = .006, OR = 3.6, 95% CI: 1.34 to 9.65), illness (P = .009, OR = 2.19, 95% CI: 1.17 to 4.08), common cold/flu (P = .003, OR = 3.32, 95% CI: 1.48 to 7.58), Jorak smoking (P = .004, OR = 14.07, 95% CI: 1.55 to 128.1), and passive smoking (P = .05, OR = 2.05, 95% CI: 1.05 to 4.01). Reduced NSOFC risk was found with calcium supplementation (P = .02, OR = 0.32, 95% CI: 0.11 to 0.88), incense use (P = .03, OR = 0.58, 95% CI: 0.34 to 0.98), and maternal drinking water, with Zamzam water (which contains a high concentration of minerals) showing a significant protective effect compared with tap water (P = .01, 95% CI: 0.06 to 0.6) and bottled water (P = .02, 95% CI: 0.03 to 0.57). CONCLUSION: Twin births, maternal antibiotic use, antiemetic medication, severe morning sickness, common cold/flu, Jorak smoking, and passive smoking were associated with infants born with NSOFC. Calcium supplementation, incense use, and Zamzam water reduced the risk of NSOFC, raising the possibility of community preventive programs.

Birth prevalence of non-syndromic orofacial clefts in Saudi Arabia and the effects of parental consanguinity.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the characteristics and prevalence of non-syndromic orofacial clefting (NSOFC) and assess the effects of parental consanguinity on NSOFC phenotypes in the 3 main cities of Saudi Arabia. METHODS: All infants (114,035) born at 3 referral centers in Riyadh, and 6 hospitals in Jeddah and Madinah between January 2010 and December 2011 were screened. The NSOFC cases (n=133) were identified and data was collected through clinical examination and records, and information on consanguinity through parent interviews. The diagnosis was confirmed by reviewing medical records and contacting the infants' pediatricians. Control infants (n=233) matched for gender and born in the same hospitals during the same period, were selected. RESULTS: The prevalence of NSOFC was 1.07/1000 births in Riyadh, and 1.17/1000 births overall; cleft lip (CL) was 0.47/1000 births, cleft lip and palate (CLP) was 0.42/1000 births, and cleft palate (CP) was 0.28/1000 births. Cleft palate was significantly associated with consanguinity (p=0.047, odds ratio: 2.5, 95% confidence interval: 1 to 6.46), particularly for first cousin marriages. CONCLUSION: The birth prevalence of NSOFC in Riyadh alone, and in the 3 main cities of Saudi Arabia were marginally lower than the mean global prevalence. While birth prevalence for CLP was comparable to global figures, the CL:CLP ratio was high, and only CP was significantly associated with consanguinity.

Passive smoking in the etiology of non-syndromic orofacial clefts: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Studies have found a consistent positive association between maternal smoking and non-syndromic orofacial clefts (NSOFC). However, no comprehensive assessment of the association between NSOFC and passive smoking has been undertaken. This systematic review and meta-analysis explores the relationship between maternal passive smoking and NSOFC, and compares the associations between passive and active smoking. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Search strategy, inclusion / exclusion criteria, and data extraction from studies reporting maternal passive smoking and NSOFC was implemented without language restrictions. Risks of bias in the identified studies were assessed and this information was used in sensitivity analyses to explain heterogeneity. Meta-analysis and meta-regression of the extracted data were performed. Egger's test was used to test for small study effects. Fourteen eligible articles were identified. Maternal passive smoking exposure was associated with a twofold increase in risk of NSOFC (odds ratio: 2.11, 95% confidence interval: 1.54-2.89); this was apparent for both cleft lip with and without palate (OR: 2.05, 95% CI: 1.27-3.3) and cleft palate (OR: 2.11, 95% CI: 1.23-3.62). There was substantial heterogeneity between studies. In the studies that provided data enabling crude and adjusted odd ratios to be compared, adjustment for potential confounders attenuated the magnitude of association to about a 1.5-fold increase in risk. CONCLUSION: Overall, maternal passive smoking exposure results in a 1.5 fold increase in risk of NSOFC, similar to the magnitude of risk reported for active smoking, but there is marked heterogeneity between studies. This heterogeneity is not explained by differences in the distribution of cleft types, adjustment for covariates, broad geographic region, or study bias/quality. This thorough meta-analysis provides further evidence to minimize exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in policy making fora and in health promotion initiatives.

Parental consanguinity and nonsyndromic orofacial clefts in children: a systematic review and meta-analyses.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether individuals born to consanguineous parents had a higher frequency of nonsyndromic orofacial clefts compared with those with no parental consanguinity. DESIGN: A prespecified plan for a search strategy, inclusion/exclusion criteria, and data extraction from studies reporting consanguinity in relation to nonsyndromic orofacial clefts (NSOFC) was carried out. Papers reporting observational studies with control populations were included, without language restrictions, and these reports were assessed for quality. Sensitivity analyses using subgroups, homogeneity evaluation, and assessment of publication bias were carried out, and meta-analyses of extracted data were performed. RESULTS: Sixteen studies fulfilled the selection criteria and were included in the meta-analyses. There were statistically significant relationships between consanguinity and NSOFC for all 16 studies combined (P = .0003), with odds ratio (OR) = 1.83 and 95% confidence interval (CI) = (1.31, 2.54); 10 case-control studies (P = .006), with OR = 2.06 and 95% CI = (1.23, 3.46); six cross-sectional studies (P = .03), with OR = 1.34 and 95% CI = (1.02, 1.76); first cousins consanguineous marriages (P = .04), with OR = 1.40 and 95% CI = (1.01, 1.93); cleft palate alone (P = .01), with OR = 1.89 and 95% CI = (1.14, 3.13); and cleft lip with or without cleft palate cases (P = .002), with OR = 1.56 and 95% CI = (1.18, 2.07). CONCLUSION: Although there was a high level of study heterogeneity, the evidence is consistent in suggesting that consanguinity is a risk factor for NSOFC, with an overall OR of 1.83 (95% CI, 1.31 to 2.54), implying that there was almost twice the risk of a child with NSOFC being born if there was parental consanguinity.

Effects of xylitol on salivary mutans streptococcus, plaque level, and caries activity in a group of Saudi mother-child pairs. An 18-month clinical trial.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of xylitol on salivary mutans streptococcus (MS), plaque level, and caries activity in a group of Saudi mother-child pairs. METHODS: A clinical trial of 60 mother-child pairs with high MS levels attending at King Abdulaziz University clinics were randomly grouped into experimental (received xylitol) and control (received fluoride varnish) groups (30 pairs each). The study was conducted from February 2009 to July 2010 for 18 months period. At 18 months, the sample dropped to 21 (experimental) and 13 pairs (control). Xylitol gum were given to mother and chewable tablets were given to children 3 times a day for a period of 3 months. Both groups received oral hygiene instructions, dietary counseling, and restorative treatment and examined to assess caries, plaque and MS levels at 6, 12, and 18 months. RESULTS: The number of mother-child pairs with high MS level in the experimental group decreased significantly at 18 months compared to baseline (p=0.001, p=0.000). A statistically significant difference in plaque level was found between the experimental and control groups at 6 and 12 month in children (p=0.000, p=0.006), while in mother, a significant decrease was recorded in the experimental group only at 18 month compared to baseline. Control group showed statistical significant increase in caries throughout the study period (p=0.040, p=0.040). CONCLUSION: The use of xylitol chewing gum by mother and chewable tablets by children, showed significant reduction of MS count, plaque score as well as caries experience.