Moderate sodium restriction does not alter lower body negative pressure tolerance.

HYPOTHESIS: Space travel with exposure to microgravity leads to a significant reduction in orthostatic tolerance on return to Earth, for which countermeasures are only partially successful. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of moderate dietary sodium restriction on tolerance to LBNP. METHODS: Eight healthy men, age 25.1+/-1.3 yr, volunteered for the study. Subjects were exposed to presyncopal LBNP after consuming their "typical" diet (C) for 5 d and after consuming a sodium restricted (SR) diet for 5 d. Diet sequence was randomized and adherence was verified by 24-h urine collection on the 4th and 5th days of each diet. RESULTS: All subjects reached presyncope during the LBNP, regardless of diet. Urinary sodium excretion was 3390+/-950 mg on the C diet and 1174+/-560 mg on the SR diet. Urinary potassium was not different between the diets. Cumulative stress index scores were 655+/-460 (mm Hg x min) on the C diet and 639+/-388 (mm Hg x min) during SR. Cardiac volumes, BP and total peripheral resistance were not different at any stage of the LBNP between the diets, nor were catecholamines. Plasma renin activity, determined by radioimmunoassay, was significantly higher during SR at rest, and during all stages of LBNP in comparison with the control diet. CONCLUSION: Moderate dietary sodium restriction is not detrimental to orthostatic tolerance.

The heart is not necessarily empty at syncope.

BACKGROUND: Although extensively investigated, the mechanism(s) of post-spaceflight orthostatic intolerance has not been elucidated. Several researchers have proposed that the "trigger" for syncope is an empty ventricle, initiated when a hypercontractile state, possibly due to a sudden surge in epinephrine, causes the walls of the left ventricle to touch leading to a profound sympatho-inhibition and intense vagal stimulation. HYPOTHESIS: A markedly reduced left ventricular end systolic volume (LVESV) achieved during progressive, presyncopal-limited lower body negative pressure (LBNP) is the trigger for syncope. METHODS: Eight healthy men, age 25.1+/-1.3 yr, volunteered for the study. Changes in left ventricular end-diastolic volume and LVESV were measured, using two-dimensional echocardiography, at each stage of LBNP from rest up to presyncope (PS). Plasma venous catecholamine concentrations were measured at the end of each stage by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. RESULTS: All subjects reached PS. Three men became bradycardic at presyncope while five remained tachycardic. LVESV decreased by 28% at PS with no evidence of ventricular cavity obliteration. Norepinephrine increased by 44% from rest to PS, but no epinephrine surge was detected (35% increase from rest to PS). CONCLUSION: These data indicate that it is possible to initiate syncope with only a 28% decrease in LVESV, and that sympatho-inhibition and bradycardia are not required elements for syncope to occur.

Validation of impedance cardiography during lower body negative pressure.

BACKGROUND: Both echocardiographic and impedance cardiographic techniques have been used individually for the determination of stroke volume (SV) during lower body negative pressure (LBNP). Impedance cardiography has not been validated during LBNP. HYPOTHESIS: The purpose of this study was to determine both the absolute values for SV and the change in SV for each stage of LBNP using both impedance and echocardiographic techniques during staged LBNP to presyncope. The hypothesis was that there would be no difference between the two techniques for either the absolute values of SV or for the change in SV with each stage of LBNP. METHODS: There were 16 men who volunteered to undergo LBNP. LBNP was lowered in 10 mmHg stages for 5 min per stage until presyncope was reached. Left ventricular SV was determined by two-dimensional echocardiography and impedance cardiography. Both the absolute values for SV and the change in SV from baseline at each stage of LBNP were compared for the two methods. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between the two techniques for the measurement of either the absolute SV or the change in SV with LBNP. The two methods correlated highly with r = 0.89 for the absolute SV values and r = 0.93 for the change in SV. Graphical analysis with the Bland-Altman analysis showed little bias in the impedance measurement for SV (-0.031 ml) and the change in SV (-2.7 ml). CONCLUSIONS: Impedance cardiography was a reliable measure of SV, as well as the change in SV, during LBNP stress to presyncope.

A ground-based study for a shuttle BRIC experiment on gravity effects on gene expression.

A BRIC (Biological Research In a Canister) experiment to investigate the effects of reduced gravity at the molecular level using Arabidopsis has been initiated. In preparation for a space flight experiment, a series of ground-based studies were conducted. Results from these studies indicate that: 1) up to 20,000 seeds can be germinated on a 100 mm diameter Petri plate, 2) nylon membrane is the best surface for recovery of plant material after freezing, 3) depending on the age of the seedlings at the time of freezing, 20 to 40 g of tissue can be obtained from Petri plates that fit in a single canister; 4) tissue from one canister yields adequate amounts of RNA to perform differential display to isolate gravity-regulated genes. Our results indicate that the proposed BRIC experiment is feasible and can provide valuable information on the possible effects of microgravity on gene regulation.

Modeling international cooperation in human space exploration for the twenty-first century.

The policy process of international cooperation in space exploration. including optimistic and pessimistic scenarios for the twenty-first century, is modeled and examined in this study. In the optimistic scenario, international cooperation involves a balanced and interdependent distribution of capabilities between states, their respective national space agencies and communities of space scientists and space engineers. Cooperation is characterized by interstate participation in critical path components and joint research and development. In the pessimistic scenario, international cooperation is structured and dominated politically and economically by powerful states vis-a-vis weaker states. Cooperation is limited to coordination of separate nationally approved projects and augmentation of capabilities in noncritical path components. On the basis of these two scenarios, policy predictions and implications relevant to exploration missions in the twenty-first century, such as a human-tended lunar base and human missions to Mars, are presented and discussed.

An integrated Engineered Closed/Controlled EcoSystem for a lunar base.

Long-term human missions in space, such as the establishment of a human-tended lunar base, require autonomous life support systems. A Lunar Engineered Closed/Controlled EcoSystem (LECCES) can provide autonomy by integrating a human module with support plant and animal modules, and waste treatment subsystems. Integration of physical/chemical (P/C) and biological waste treatment subsystems can lead to viable and operational bioregenerative systems that minimize resupply requirements from Earth. A top-level diagram for LECCES is developed based on the human module requirements. The proposed diagram is presented and its components are discussed.

Bioregenerative life support systems for long-term space habitation: a conceptual approach.

Life support systems represent one of the most critical aspects of human space exploration. Future long-term missions such as the establishment of human-tended Lunar and Martian bases require closed life support systems. A conceptual approach to an Engineered Closed/Controlled EcoSystem incorporating bioregenerative capabilities by integrating humans, plants, and waste management processes is presented. The integration of physical/chemical and biological waste treatment processes is suitable for supporting plant growth through hydroponics and materially closing the human and plant metabolic loops. This conceptual design separates wastes into individual loops for treatment according to the specific metabolic needs of humans and plants. The means through which an integrated Engineered Closed/Controlled EcoSystem meets the life support objectives of long-term space habitation are summarized.

A bioreactor system for the nitrogen loop in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System.

As space missions become longer in duration, the need to recycle waste into useful compounds rises dramatically. This problem can be addressed by the development of Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS) (i.e., Engineered Closed/Controlled Eco-Systems (ECCES)), consisting of human and plant modules. One of the waste streams leaving the human module is urine. In addition to the reclamation of water from urine, recovery of the nitrogen is important because it is an essential nutrient for the plant module. A 3-step biological process for the recycling of nitrogenous waste (urea) is proposed. A packed-bed bioreactor system for this purpose was modeled, and the issues of reaction step segregation, reactor type and volume, support particle size, and pressure drop were addressed. Based on minimization of volume, a bioreactor system consisting of a plug flow immobilized urease reactor, a completely mixed flow immobilized cell reactor to convert ammonia to nitrite, and a plug flow immobilized cell reactor to produce nitrate from nitrite is recommended. It is apparent that this 3-step bioprocess meets the requirements for space applications.

Modeling gas exchange in a closed plant growth chamber.

Fluid transport models for fluxes of water vapor and CO2 have been developed for one crop of wheat and three crops of soybean grown in a closed plant growth chamber. Correspondence among these fluxes is discussed. Maximum fluxes of gases are provided for engineering design requirements of fluid recycling equipment in growth chambers. Furthermore, to investigate the feasibility of generalized crop models, dimensionless representations of water vapor fluxes are presented. The feasibility of such generalized models and the need for additional data are discussed.

Geometric modeling of inflatable structures for lunar base.

A modular inflatable structure consisting of thin, composite membranes is presented for use in a lunar base. Results from a linear elastic analysis of the structure indicate that it is feasible in the lunar environment. Further analysis requires solving nonlinear equations and accurately specifying the geometries of the structural members. A computerized geometric modeling technique, using bicubic Bezier surfaces to generate the geometries of the inflatable structure, was conducted. Simulated results are used to create three-dimensional wire frames and solid renderings of the individual components of the inflatable structure. The component geometries are connected into modules, which are then assembled based upon the desired architecture of the structure.