From Conspiracy to Hesitancy: The Longitudinal Impact of COVID-19 Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Perceived Vaccine Effectiveness.

The embrace of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine conspiracies has been linked to vaccine hesitancy. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between COVID-19 vaccine conspiracy theories and perceived vaccine effectiveness. The study utilized a longitudinal follow-up study in which adults in Chile completed surveys in December 2020 (T1) and May 2021 (T2). The psychometric properties of the five-item instrument on conspiracy theories for the COVID-19 vaccine were evaluated using data from T1 (n = 578). A confirmatory one-factor structure with suitable indicators of reliability was found. The longitudinal analysis (n = 292) revealed that conspiracy theories about the COVID-19 vaccine in T1 were associated with lower beliefs in its effectiveness in T2. However, no significant association was found between beliefs in effectiveness in T1 and conspiracy theories in T2. The study suggests that beliefs in conspiracy theories may temporally precede beliefs in vaccine effectiveness for COVID-19. The results have implications for strategies to address vaccine conspiracy beliefs and their implementation at the public policy level.

Problemas de salud mental en universitarios durante la pandemia por COVID-19: ¿qué tipo de ayuda buscan? / Mental health problems in university students during the COVID-19 pandemic: What kind of help do they seek?

Introducción: La pandemia por COVID-19 ha tenido un impacto negativo en el bienestar psicológico de la población, siendo los jóvenes un grupo especialmente vulnerable. Objetivo: El presente estudio se propuso examinar los niveles de búsqueda de ayuda (formal e informal) para problemas en salud mental y sus variables asociadas en una muestra de estudiantes universitarios de la Región de La Araucanía, en el contexto de la pandemia por COVID-19. Método: A través de un muestreo no probabilístico por conveniencia, se reclutó a 500 estudiantes de entre 18 y 29 años. Se describió y comparó su nivel de búsqueda de ayuda, así como variables que podrían obstaculizarla o facilitarla, según género. Adicionalmente, se estimaron modelos de regresión lineal múltiple diferenciados por género, con la búsqueda de ayuda informal como variable criterio. Resultados: Se evidenció una renuencia general a buscar ayuda (formal e informal) tanto en hombres como mujeres, una mayor experimentación de malestar psicológico y mayor conocimiento sobre salud mental en mujeres. Finalmente, se observaron diferencias en los predictores de la búsqueda de ayuda informal entre hombres y mujeres, siendo el apoyo social y las emociones negativas en pandemia los únicos comunes entre géneros. Conclusión: Se discuten los bajos niveles de búsqueda de ayuda evidenciados, y las diferencias observadas en variables asociadas, en función de la brecha de género en salud mental.

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the psychological well-being of the population, with young people being a particularly vulnerable group. Aim: The present study examines help-seeking intention for mental health problems and associated variables among male and female university students in La Araucanía Region during the COVI-19 pandemic. Method: A sample of 500 students aged 18 to 29 was recruited through non-probabilistic convenience sampling. Help-seeking levels and facilitating or hindering variables were compared by gender. Multiple linear regression models were estimated separately by gender to predict the criterion variable of informal help-seeking. Results: The results indicate that both men and women are reluctant to seek help (formal and informal). Women reported higher levels of psychological distress and greater knowledge about mental health than men. Differences in predictors of informal help-seeking between men and women are evidenced, with social support and negative emotions in pandemic being the only common predictors between genders. Conclusion: The low levels of help-seeking evidenced, and the differences observed in associated variables based on the gender gap in mental health, are discussed.

Analysis of the Mental and Physical Health Symptomatology Scale in a Sample of Emerging and Migrant Adults in Chile.

Health inequities exist in groups of greater psychosocial vulnerability such as emerging adults and migrants. The study aimed to generate evidence of the validity of the mental and physical health symptomatology scale in two samples of vulnerable groups: emerging university adults, who report high levels of mental health problems, and migrants, who report high levels of physical and mental health problems. Using non-probability sampling, in the first study, evidence of construct validity of the scale was reported in 652 emerging adults and, in the second, evidence of validity was provided from associations with the depression, stress and anxiety scale (DASS-21) among 283 migrants. The results indicate that in Study 1 the two-factor model had adequate indicators of fit and adequate reliability; only the mental health factor presented evidence of convergent validity. In Study 2, the mental health factor showed positive and large associations with the DASS-21, which decreased when the physical health symptoms factor was considered. These analyses provide evidence of validity for the scale, which is an easy-to-use instrument that allows for the assessment of health from an integral perspective.

Acculturative Stress, Perceived Social Support, and Mental Health: The Mediating Effect of Negative Emotions Associated with Discrimination.

The role of perceived social support in the acculturation process of immigrants remains unclear. In this study, we jointly evaluated the associations between acculturative stress and negative emotions associated with discrimination as antecedents of anxiety, depression, and stress symptoms in 283 immigrants living in Chile. Three competing models were tested via structural equation modelling to assess (1) the association among these variables and mental health symptoms and (2) to clarify the role of perceived social support. The third model was theoretically more adequate, showed a better fit, and explained 42.7% of the variance of mental health symptoms. In this model, perceived social support was associated with acculturative stress by reducing mental health symptomatology. Moreover, a direct relationship and an indirect relationship were found between acculturative stress (through negative emotions associated with discrimination) and mental health symptomatology. These results contribute to the understanding of the acculturation process experienced by immigrants in Chile and provide empirical evidence to be used to improve migration policies.

Escala de creencias hacia las vacunas y hacia la vacuna contra el SARS-CoV-2: Evidencia de sus propiedades psicométricas / Psychometric properties of two surveys about beliefs towards vaccines in general and SARS-CoV-2 vaccine

BACKGROUND: Negative beliefs about vaccines can threaten herd immunity and pandemic control. Although beliefs about vaccines influence vaccination intention, there are no valid instruments that evaluate this in the Latin American population. AIM: To evaluate the psychometric properties of two scales that measure negative beliefs towards vaccines in general and against SARS-CoV-2 and provide evidence of their association with vaccination intention (convergent validity) in a Chilean sample. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Two studies were carried out. The first included 263 people who answered the beliefs towards vaccines in general scale (CV-G) and the beliefs towards the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine scale (CV-COVID). Exploratory factor analyses were conducted. In the second study, 601 people answered the same scales. Confirmatory factor analyses and structural equation modeling were performed to provide evidence of validity. RESULTS: Both scales had an unifactorial structure and excellent reliability and showed associations with the intention of vaccination against SARS-CoV-2, providing evidence of convergent validity. CONCLUSIONS: The scales evaluated here are reliable and valid measures that showed associations with vaccination intention in the Chilean population.

Escala de creencias hacia las vacunas y hacia la vacuna contra el SARS-CoV-2: Evidencia de sus propiedades psicométricas / Psychometric properties of two surveys about beliefs towards vaccines in general and SARS-CoV-2 vaccine

BACKGROUND: Negative beliefs about vaccines can threaten herd immunity and pandemic control. Although beliefs about vaccines influence vaccination intention, there are no valid instruments that evaluate this in the Latin American population. Aim: To evaluate the psychometric properties of two scales that measure negative beliefs towards vaccines in general and against SARS-CoV-2 and provide evidence of their association with vaccination intention (convergent validity) in a Chilean sample. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Two studies were carried out. The first included 263 people who answered the beliefs towards vaccines in general scale (CV-G) and the beliefs towards the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine scale (CV-COVID). Exploratory factor analyses were conducted. In the second study, 601 people answered the same scales. Confirmatory factor analyses and structural equation modeling were performed to provide evidence of validity. RESULTS: Both scales had an unifactorial structure and excellent reliability and showed associations with the intention of vaccination against SARS-CoV-2, providing evidence of convergent validity. Conclusions: The scales evaluated here are reliable and valid measures that showed associations with vaccination intention in the Chilean population.

Changes in the clustering of health-related behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic: examining predictors using latent transition analysis.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on daily life, affecting both physical and mental health. Changes arising from the pandemic may longitudinally impact health-related behaviors (HRB). As different HRBs co-occur, in this study, we explore how six HRBs - alcohol (past-week and binge-drinking), tobacco, marijuana, benzodiazepine use, and unhealthy food consumption - were grouped and changed over time during the COVID-19 pandemic. A sample of 1038 university students and staff (18 to 73 years old) of two universities completed an online psychometrically adequate survey regarding their recalled HRB (T0, pre-COVID-19 pandemic) and the impact of COVID-19 on their behaviors during July (T1) and November (T2). Latent Transition Analysis (LTA) was used to identify HRB cluster membership and how clusters changed across T0, T1, and T2. Four clusters emerged, but remained mainly stable over time: 'Lower risk' (65.2-80%), 'Smokers and drinkers' (1.5-0.01%), 'Binge-drinkers and marijuana users' (27.6-13.9%), and 'Smokers and binge-drinkers' (5.6-5.8%). Participants who moved from one cluster to another lowered their HRB across time, migrating from the 'Binge-drinkers and marijuana users' cluster to 'Lower risk'. Participants in this cluster were characterized as less affected economically by the COVID-19 pandemic, with lower reported stress levels, anxiety, depression, and loneliness than the other clusters. Our results provide evidence of how HRBs clustered together and transitioned longitudinally during the COVID-19 pandemic. HRB clustering across time offers a valuable piece of information for the tailoring of interventions to improve HRB.

Predictors of COVID-19 Vaccine Intention: Evidence from Chile, Mexico, and Colombia.

(1) Background: Although the evidence is consistent that vaccines for COVID-19 effectively prevent severe illness or death, the rapid development of vaccines has led to increased beliefs about possible negative consequences and conspiracy theories about the vaccine. Several factors influence whether or not people decide to be vaccinated. Some studies suggest that our perception of what significant others do and think influences our behavior. (2) Methods: This study evaluates the predictive role of beliefs about negative consequences of the COVID-19 vaccine, conspiracy beliefs about this vaccine, and social influence on the intention to vaccinate against COVID-19 in three Latin American and Caribbean countries: Chile, Mexico, and Colombia. Using convenience sampling, 2075 adults from Chile (48.3%), Mexico (27.6%), and Colombia (24.6%) participated by answering an online questionnaire with variables of interest. (3) Results: Despite the differences between countries, the results showed that the proposed model is invariant and explains between 56-66% of the COVID-19 vaccination intent. Specifically, controlling for age, socioeconomic status, political orientation, and educational level, we found that beliefs about the negative consequences of the COVID-19 vaccine were the main predictor followed by social influence. Beliefs in conspiracy theories did not predict vaccination intention (4) Conclusions: Considering these variables in campaigns to boost vaccination intention is discussed.

[Psychometric properties of two surveys about beliefs towards vaccines in general and SARS-CoV-2 vaccine]. / Escala de creencias hacia las vacunas y hacia la vacuna contra el SARS-CoV-2: Evidencia de sus propiedades psicométricas.

BACKGROUND: Negative beliefs about vaccines can threaten herd immunity and pandemic control. Although beliefs about vaccines influence vaccination intention, there are no valid instruments that evaluate this in the Latin American population. AIM: To evaluate the psychometric properties of two scales that measure negative beliefs towards vaccines in general and against SARS-CoV-2 and provide evidence of their association with vaccination intention (convergent validity) in a Chilean sample. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Two studies were carried out. The first included 263 people who answered the beliefs towards vaccines in general scale (CV-G) and the beliefs towards the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine scale (CV-COVID). Exploratory factor analyses were conducted. In the second study, 601 people answered the same scales. Confirmatory factor analyses and structural equation modeling were performed to provide evidence of validity. RESULTS: Both scales had an unifactorial structure and excellent reliability and showed associations with the intention of vaccination against SARS-CoV-2, providing evidence of convergent validity. CONCLUSIONS: The scales evaluated here are reliable and valid measures that showed associations with vaccination intention in the Chilean population.

[Psychometric properties of two surveys about beliefs towards vaccines in general and SARS-CoV-2 vaccine]. / Escala de creencias hacia las vacunas y hacia la vacuna contra el SARS-CoV-2: Evidencia de sus propiedades psicométricas.

BACKGROUND: Negative beliefs about vaccines can threaten herd immunity and pandemic control. Although beliefs about vaccines influence vaccination intention, there are no valid instruments that evaluate this in the Latin American population. AIM: To evaluate the psychometric properties of two scales that measure negative beliefs towards vaccines in general and against SARS-CoV-2 and provide evidence of their association with vaccination intention (convergent validity) in a Chilean sample. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Two studies were carried out. The first included 263 people who answered the beliefs towards vaccines in general scale (CV-G) and the beliefs towards the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine scale (CV-COVID). Exploratory factor analyses were conducted. In the second study, 601 people answered the same scales. Confirmatory factor analyses and structural equation modeling were performed to provide evidence of validity. RESULTS: Both scales had an unifactorial structure and excellent reliability and showed associations with the intention of vaccination against SARS-CoV-2, providing evidence of convergent validity. CONCLUSIONS: The scales evaluated here are reliable and valid measures that showed associations with vaccination intention in the Chilean population.

The Perceived Impact of COVID-19 on Comfort Food Consumption over Time: The Mediational Role of Emotional Distress.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on populations at an economic, health, and on an interpersonal level, it is still unclear how it has affected health-risk behaviors, such as comfort food consumption over time. This study longitudinally examines the effect of the perceived impact of COVID-19 on comfort food consumption and whether this effect is mediated by emotional distress. A convenience sample of 1048 students and university staff (academic and non-academic) from two universities completed monthly online surveys during the COVID-19 pandemic across six waves (W; W1 to W6). Participants reported their perceived impact of COVID-19 (economic, interpersonal, and health), comfort food consumption, and emotional distress (DASS-21). Using structural equation models, we found an indirect longitudinal effect of the perceived impact of COVID-19 (W1) on comfort food consumption (W3 to W6) through increased emotional distress (W2). The perceived negative impact of COVID-19 on comfort food consumption was fully mediated by the emotional distress during the first waves (W3 and W4), ending in a partial mediation in the last waves (W5 and W6). These findings contribute to disentangling the mechanisms by which the perceived impact of COVID-19 affects comfort food consumption over time, and highlight the role of emotional distress. Future interventions should address comfort food consumption by focusing on handling emotional distress during a crisis.

COVID-19 Perceived Impact and Psychological Variables as Predictors of Unhealthy Food and Alcohol Consumption Trajectories: The Role of Gender and Living with Children as Moderators.

The present study examines the trajectories of unhealthy food and alcohol consumption over time and considers whether perceived impact of COVID-19 and psychological variables are predictors of these trajectories. We ascertained whether these predictors are different in women vs. men and between women living with vs. without children. Data were collected through online surveys administered to 1038 participants from two universities (staff and students) in Chile, across five waves (July to October 2020). Participants provided information about their past-week unhealthy food and alcohol consumption and mental health. Using latent growth curve modeling analysis, we found that higher perceived health and interpersonal COVID-19 impact, younger age and lower depression symptoms were associated with more rapid increases over time in unhealthy food consumption. On the other hand, higher perceived COVID-19 economic impact and older age were associated with more rapid diachronic decreases in alcohol consumption. Gender and living with or without children, for women only, were moderators of these trajectories. This longitudinal study provides strong evidence identifying the multiple repercussions of COVID-19 and mental health factors on unhealthy food and alcohol consumption. These findings highlight the need for interventions aimed at minimizing the impact of the pandemic on unhealthy food and alcohol consumption over time.

[The influence of financial situation and friends' support on health self-perception of older adults]. / Autopercepción de salud en adultos mayores: moderación por género de la situación financiera, el apoyo social de amigos y la edad.

BACKGROUND: The Chilean population is aging rapidly. This socio-demographic change imposes psychosocial and economic challenges that are relevant for the health care of older people. AIM: To assess the association between perceived financial situation, perceived social support by friends, and age with health self-perception in older people. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A questionnaire about health self-perception, financial situation, and social support perceived by friends was applied to 383 occupationally active adults aged 68 ± 5 years (66% women) living in urban areas of Southern Chile. A gender-based multi-group path model was specified, which evaluated the association of health self-perception with the assessment of the financial situation, social support, and age. RESULTS: The final model was moderated by gender. However, age was not associated with health self-perception. For men and women, the perceived financial situation showed a positive association with health self-perception. The perceived social support of friends was only significant for women. CONCLUSIONS: The financial situation and friends' support (among women) are factors that should be considered in the evaluation of the health perception of older adults.

Life Satisfaction among Indigenous People from Chile: Evaluation of Measurement Invariance / Satisfacción con la vida en indígenas de Chile: evaluación de la Invarianza de Medida

Abstract Although the Life Satisfaction Scale (SWLS) has been used to establish comparisons among nations/cultures, the measurement invariance of this scale has not always been demonstrated. The forced acculturative experience of indigenous minorities and its differentiation of gender roles could impact how people respond to this scale. The purpose of this study was to examine the measurement invariance of the SWLS when it is applied to a Chilean indigenous group, considering gender and their most frequent acculturative types (i.e., acculturated and bicultural). Eight hundred adults of Mapuche origin answered a Spanish version of the SWLS and the Mapuche Acculturation Scale. The results supported the SWLS strict invariance between acculturated and bicultural and also between acculturated men and women. Partial strict invariance was found between bicultural men and women; specifically, the residual variance of Item 3 was higher in women than in men. Since Spanish is a gendered language, a linguistic explanation is proposed for the non-invariance of this item. The importance of careful wording of the items, when administered in multilanguage acculturation contexts, is discussed.

Resumen Aunque la Escala de Satisfacción con la Vida (SWLS) se ha usado para comparar personas de distintas naciones/culturas, no siempre su invarianza de medición ha sido demostrada. La aculturación forzada de las minorías indígenas y sus particulares roles de género podrían afectar las respuestas de esas personas a esta escala. Este estudio tuvo por objetivo examinar la invarianza de la SWLS en un grupo indígena chileno, considerando el género y los tipos aculturativos más frecuentes (i.e., aculturados y biculturales). Ochocientos adultos mapuches respondieron, en castellano, la SWLS y la Escala de Aculturación Mapuche. Se encontró apoyo para invarianza estricta entre aculturados y biculturales y, además, entre hombres y mujeres aculturados. Se encontró invarianza estricta parcial entre hombres y mujeres biculturales; específicamente, la varianza residual del ítem 3 fue mayor en mujeres que en hombres. Siendo el castellano un idioma con distinción de géneros, se propuso una explicación lingüística para la falta de invarianza de ese ítem. Se discute la importancia de redactar cuidadosamente los ítems cuando son administrados en contextos aculturativos multilingües.

Autopercepción de salud en adultos mayores: moderación por género de la situación financiera, el apoyo social de amigos y la edad / The influence of financial situation and friends' support on health self-perception of older adults

Background: The Chilean population is aging rapidly. This socio-demographic change imposes psychosocial and economic challenges that are relevant for the health care of older people. Aim: To assess the association between perceived financial situation, perceived social support by friends, and age with health self-perception in older people. Material and Methods: A questionnaire about health self-perception, financial situation, and social support perceived by friends was applied to 383 occupationally active adults aged 68 ± 5 years (66% women) living in urban areas of Southern Chile. A gender-based multi-group path model was specified, which evaluated the association of health self-perception with the assessment of the financial situation, social support, and age. Results: The final model was moderated by gender. However, age was not associated with health self-perception. For men and women, the perceived financial situation showed a positive association with health self-perception. The perceived social support of friends was only significant for women. Conclusions: The financial situation and friends' support (among women) are factors that should be considered in the evaluation of the health perception of older adults.