A comprehensive analysis of children's blood lead levels in Latin America and the Caribbean over the last eight years: Progress and recommendations.

In 2017 we published a review on blood lead levels (BLL) in children from Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) for data available up to 14th of March 2014 and recommended the identification and control of "lead hot spots". In the present study, an evaluation of progress toward reducing BLL in the region was carried out. A systematic review of the latest literature on lead exposure in the LAC region held on the PubMed, Web of Science and LILACS databases (January 2014 to March 2022) was conducted using the PRISMA methodology. Only original papers published in peer-reviewed English, Spanish, or Portuguese journals were eligible. A total of 558 papers were retrieved, 77 of which met the selection criteria and 31 (40.25 %) were carried out in Mexico. The prevalence of children with BLL above 10 µg. dL-1 was 22.08 % in the previous review versus 6.78 % in the current study. In the present review, the prevalence of children with BLL above 5 µg. dL-1 was 29.62 %, and only one study reported a BLL prevalence rate between 3.3 and 5 µg. dL-1. The highest BLLs were associated with well-known sources or occupational exposures. The number of countries (n = 13) that published data on BLL in children was lower compared to the previous review (n = 16). Most studies were conducted in areas with known lead exposure sources, similar to the earlier review. The percentage of children at risk of lead poisoning in the region remains unknown because few studies have published data on environmental exposure levels and most samples were relatively small. The recommendation to identify and control sources of lead exposure was maintained, while further suggestions for establishing a systematic public health surveillance system for lead were proposed to help reduce the knowledge gap and inform public health policy-making in LAC.

Occupational exposure to potentially toxic elements alters gene expression profiles in formal and informal Brazilian workers.

Chemical elements, such as toxic metals, have previously demonstrated their ability to alter gene expression in humans and other species. In this study, microarray analysis was used to compare the gene expression profiles of different occupational exposure populations: a) informal workers who perform soldering of jewelry inside their houses (n = 22) in São Paulo (SP) State; and b) formal workers from a steel company (n = 10) in Rio de Janeiro (RJ) state, Brazil. Control participants were recruited from the same neighborhoods without occupational chemical exposure (n = 19 in SP and n = 8 in RJ). A total of 68 blood samples were collected and RNA was extracted and hybridized using an Agilent microarray platform. Data pre-processing, statistical and pathway analysis were performed using GeneSpring software. Different expression was detected by fold-change analysis resulting in 16 up- and 33 down-regulated genes in informal workers compared to the control group. Pathway analysis revealed genes enriched in MAPK, Toll-like receptor, and NF-kappa B signaling pathways, involved in inflammatory and immune responses. In formal workers, 20 up- and 50 down-regulated genes were found related to antimicrobial peptides, defensins, neutrophil degranulation, Fc-gamma receptor-dependent phagocytosis, and pathways associated with atherosclerosis development, which is one of the main factors involved in the progression of cardiovascular diseases. The gene IFI27 was the only one commonly differentially expressed between informal and formal workers and is known to be associated with various types of cancer. In conclusion, differences in gene expression related to occupational exposure are mainly associated with inflammation and immune response. Previous research has identified a link between inflammation and immune responses and the development of chronic diseases, suggesting that prolonged occupational exposures to potentially toxic elements in Brazilian metal workers could lead to negative health outcomes. Further analysis should be carried out to investigate its direct effects and to validate causal associations.

Is chemical exposure present in informal work associated with Sars-CoV-2 infection?

OBJECTIVE: To compare the incidence of covid-19 symptoms between informal home-based workers and a control group and to assess the association of these cases with blood elements concentrations and other relevant risk factors for Sars-Cov-2 infection. METHODS: Welders chemically exposed to potentially toxic elements (PTEs) (n = 26) and control participants (n = 25) answered questionnaires on adherence to social distancing and signs and symptoms of the disease for five months during the covid-19 pandemic. After follow-up, covid-19 serology tests were performed on a subsample of 12 chemically exposed workers and 20 control participants. Before the pandemic, PTE concentrations in blood (As, Mn, Ni, Cd, Hg, Sb, Sn, Cu, Zn, and Pb) were measured by ICP-MS. RESULTS: The chemically exposed group had higher lead and cadmium levels in blood (p < 0.01). The control group presented lower adherence to social distancing (p = 0.016). Although not significant, welders had a 74% greater chance of having at least one covid-19 symptom compared with control participants, but their adherence to social distancing decreased this chance by 20%. The use of taxis for transportation was a risk factor significantly associated with covid-19 symptoms. CONCLUSION: The lower adherence to social distancing among the control group greatly influences the development of covid-19. The literature lacks data linking exposure to PTEs and Sars-Cov-2 infection and/or severity. In this study, despite chemical exposure, working from home may have protected welders against covid-19, considering that they maintained greater social distancing than control participants.

Is chemical exposure present in informal work associated with Sars-CoV-2 infection?

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To compare the incidence of covid-19 symptoms between informal home-based workers and a control group and to assess the association of these cases with blood elements concentrations and other relevant risk factors for Sars-Cov-2 infection. METHODS Welders chemically exposed to potentially toxic elements (PTEs) (n = 26) and control participants (n = 25) answered questionnaires on adherence to social distancing and signs and symptoms of the disease for five months during the covid-19 pandemic. After follow-up, covid-19 serology tests were performed on a subsample of 12 chemically exposed workers and 20 control participants. Before the pandemic, PTE concentrations in blood (As, Mn, Ni, Cd, Hg, Sb, Sn, Cu, Zn, and Pb) were measured by ICP-MS. RESULTS The chemically exposed group had higher lead and cadmium levels in blood (p < 0.01). The control group presented lower adherence to social distancing (p = 0.016). Although not significant, welders had a 74% greater chance of having at least one covid-19 symptom compared with control participants, but their adherence to social distancing decreased this chance by 20%. The use of taxis for transportation was a risk factor significantly associated with covid-19 symptoms. CONCLUSION The lower adherence to social distancing among the control group greatly influences the development of covid-19. The literature lacks data linking exposure to PTEs and Sars-Cov-2 infection and/or severity. In this study, despite chemical exposure, working from home may have protected welders against covid-19, considering that they maintained greater social distancing than control participants.

O impacto da exposição química sobre o transcriptoma de trabalhadores formais e informais / The impact of chemical exposure on the transcriptome of formal and informal workers

Introdução: Exposições químicas podem variar em populações geograficamente distintas, com diferentes hábitos, estilos de vida e características individuais. Alguns elementos químicos encontrados no ambiente são capazes de alterar a expressão gênica humana. Objetivos: a) quantificar as concentrações de elementos potencialmente tóxicos (EPTs: As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, e Zn) na urina da população de Limeira, e nas peças de joias e pó de solda; b) quantificar as concentrações de EPTs no sangue dos participantes de Limeira e Volta Redonda; c) avaliar os riscos de doenças associadas à exposição ocupacional; d) avaliar o impacto da exposição ocupacional na expressão gênica de trabalhadores formais e informais. Métodos: O grupo Exposto foi composto por trabalhadores informais que realizam soldagem de joias e bijuterias em ambiente domiciliar na cidade de Limeira, SP; e por trabalhadores formais da Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional, em Volta Redonda, RJ. O grupo Controle incluiu moradores dos mesmos bairros dos trabalhadores, mas que não desenvolviam nenhuma atividade diretamente relacionada à exposição química. Amostras de sangue foram coletadas para quantificação de glicose, insulina, perfil lipídico, EPTs e para análise transcriptômica. Em Limeira, também foi quantificada a concentração de EPTs na urina. Para transcriptômica, o RNA foi extraído e hibridizado com Agilent SurePrint G3 Human Gene Expression 8x60K v2 Microarray. O pré-processamento, análise estatística e de vias de interesse foram realizados no software GeneSpring GX. Todos os participantes preencheram questionários sobre hábitos, percepção de risco, morbidade referida e exposição ocupacional. A associação entre exposição a EPTs e desfechos de saúde foi testada por modelo de regressão de Poisson multivariado. Resultados: Nos trabalhadores informais, foram detectados 16 genes superexpressos e 33 subexpressos em comparação com os controles (fold-change > 2). A análise de vias indicou genes enriquecidos em vias do processo inflamatório (quimiocinas MAPK, receptor Toll-like e NF-kappa B). Nos trabalhadores formais, foram encontrados 20 genes superexpressos e 50 subexpressos, com vias relacionadas à resposta imune e ao processo de aterosclerose. O único gene diferencialmente expresso (DEG) em comum nas duas populações foi o IFI27 relacionado na literatura a diferentes tipos de câncer. A produção informal de joias de Limeira foi associada a exposição dos trabalhadores ao Cd, com concentrações significativamente maiores na urina e no sangue dos trabalhadores comparado aos controles. Além disso, foi observada uma associação positiva entre as concentrações de Cd no sangue e a glicemia. As concentrações de As e Pb também foram maiores no sangue dos trabalhadores informais comparado aos controles, sendo que participantes com concentrações de Pb superiores a 2,6 µg dL-1 apresentaram prevalência de manifestações neurológicas 2,3 vezes maior (IC 95%: 1,17 - 4,58; p = 0,02). Não foram observadas diferenças significativas nos EPTs entre os grupos de Volta Redonda, provavelmente devido ao uso de equipamentos de proteção individual e à poluição ambiental na região. Conclusão: As diferenças na expressão gênica relacionadas à exposição ocupacional estão associadas, principalmente, à inflamação e à resposta imune. Os resultados sugerem que a exposição ocupacional prolongada a elementos tóxicos pode levar a consequências negativas para a saúde, como por exemplo, um aumento da prevalência de manifestações neurológicas. Os resultados exploratórios desta tese são um ponto de partida para estudos em populações sensíveis e pouco estudadas, especialmente, de países em desenvolvimento. Análises adicionais devem ser realizadas para investigar efeitos diretos e validar associações causais.

Introduction: Chemical exposures may vary in geographically distinct populations, with different habits, lifestyles, and individual characteristics. Objectives: a) to determine potentially toxic elements' (EPTs: As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, and Zn) in the urine of the population of Limeira, and in jewelry pieces and soldering powder; b) determine the PTEs concentrations in the participants' blood from Limeira and Volta Redonda municipalities; c) investigate disease risks associated with occupational exposure; d) to evaluate the impact of occupational exposure on gene expression profile. Methods: The exposed group was composed of informal workers who perform soldering of jewelry inside their houses in the city of Limeira, SP; and formal workers from a steel company in the city of Volta Redonda, RJ. Control participants were recruited from the same neighborhoods without occupational chemical exposure. Blood samples were collected for blood glucose, insulin, lipid profile, and PTE determinations, and for transcriptomic analysis. In Limeira, PTE concentration in urine was also determined. RNA was extracted and hybridized to Agilent SurePrint G3 Human Gene Expression 8x60K v2 Microarray for transcriptomics analysis. Pre-processing, statistical, and pathway analysis were performed in GeneSpring GX software. All participants completed questionnaires about household risk, reported morbidity, and occupational exposure. The association between PTEs exposure and health outcomes was tested by a multivariable robust Poisson regression model. Results: 16 up- and 33 down-regulated genes (fold-change > 2) were observed in the informal workers. Pathway analysis revealed genes enriched in inflammatory process (MAPK, Toll-like receptor, and NF-kappa B chemokine signaling pathways). In formal workers, 20 up- and 50 down-regulated genes were found with pathways related to immune response and atherosclerosis development. The gene IFI27 which has been associated with various types of cancer was the only one commonly differentially expressed between informal and formal workers. Informal jewelry production in Limeira increased exposure to Cd, with significantly higher concentrations in the urine and blood of informal exposed workers compared to controls. Furthermore, a positive association was observed between blood Cd concentrations and glycemia. The blood concentration of As and Pb were also Participants with Pb concentrations higher than 2.6 µg dL-1 showed a prevalence of neurological manifestations 2.3 times higher (95% CI: 1.17 - 4.58; p = 0.02) than those with lower lead concentrations. No significant differences were observed between formal workers from Volta Redonda and their control group, probably, because of the use of individual protection equipment and the environmental pollution in the region. Conclusion: Differences in gene expression related to occupational exposure are mainly associated with inflammation and immune response. The results suggest that prolonged occupational exposure to toxic elements could lead to negative health outcomes, such as higher prevalence of neurological manifestations. These exploratory results are a starting point for analysis in sensitive and understudied populations, especially in developing countries. Further analysis should be carried out to investigate its direct effects and to validate causal associations.

Potentially Toxic Elements in Costume Cosmetics Used by Children and Adults Are Associated with Cancer Risk.

(1) Background: Costume cosmetics, such as face paints and pancakes, are used by adults and children during Halloween, Carnival, or children's parties. However, the metallic-based pigments used as dyes in these products may contain toxic elements associated with different levels of exposure. Objectives: (a) to determine the Al, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, and Sr concentrations in face paints and pancakes; and (b) to estimate cancer and non-cancer risks posed by the concentrations of each element in these products for dermal and ingestion exposure scenarios during children and adult use. (2) Methods: A total of 95 samples of face paints and pancakes (four brands in different textures and colors) were purchased at the largest high-street commercial center in São Paulo city, Brazil. An extraction procedure with nitric acid was carried out using a graphite-covered digester block. Toxic element determinations were performed using an ICP-MS. (3) Results: The non-cancer risks estimated were lower than 1, except for dermal exposure in adults for some target systems. High cancer risk values raise concerns in both groups. The risk for children ranged from 10-8 to 10-5 and proved higher in cases of accidental exposure by ingestion. For occupational exposure in adults, cancer risks were even higher, ranging from 10-3 to 10-5, with the highest values associated with dermal exposure. (4) Conclusions: The study results suggest the presence of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in cosmetics should be regulated/monitored to protect human health, especially for occupational exposure and use by children.

The human exposome unraveling the impact of environment on health: promise or reality?

Considering the innovative nature of the approach to human exposome, we present the state of the art of studies on exposome, and discuss current challenges and perspectives in this area. Several reading and discussion activities were conducted by the Expossoma e Saúde do Trabalhador (eXsat - Group Exposome and Worker's Health), with systematization of the literature in the area published between January 2005 and January 2017, available in the databases PubMed and Web of Science. This comment brings a thematic analysis to encourage the dissemination of the exposome approach for studies in the Public Health area.

The human exposome unraveling the impact of environment on health: promise or reality? / O expossoma humano desvendando o impacto do ambiente sobre a saúde: promessa ou realidade?

ABSTRACT Considering the innovative nature of the approach to human exposome, we present the state of the art of studies on exposome, and discuss current challenges and perspectives in this area. Several reading and discussion activities were conducted by the Expossoma e Saúde do Trabalhador (eXsat - Group Exposome and Worker's Health), with systematization of the literature in the area published between January 2005 and January 2017, available in the databases PubMed and Web of Science. This comment brings a thematic analysis to encourage the dissemination of the exposome approach for studies in the Public Health area.

RESUMO Levando em consideração a natureza inovadora da abordagem do expossoma humano, apresentamos o estado da arte dos estudos sobre expossoma, e discutimos os desafios e perspectivas atuais nessa área. Foram realizadas diversas atividades de leitura e discussão pelo grupo eXsat (Expossoma e Saúde do Trabalhador), com sistematização da literatura da área publicada entre janeiro de 2005 e janeiro de 2017, disponíveis nas bases de dados PubMed e Web of Science. O presente comentário traz uma análise da temática de forma a incentivar a disseminação da abordagem do expossoma nos estudos da área de Saúde Pública.

Home-based and informal work exposes the families to high levels of potentially toxic elements.

The city of Limeira presents a relevant productive chain of jewelry and fashion jewelry, including a scenario of outsourcing informal home practices. It is highly complex to understand the potentially toxic elements (PTE: Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Sn, Sb, Hg, and Pb) exposures of the workers because this productive chain encompasses households. This study aimed to investigate the associations between blood PTE levels and informal work in the home environment. Fifty-two families divided into Exposed group (n = 112) and Control group (n = 53) were included. Families' blood (n = 165) and welder's breathing zone air samples (n = 9) were collected and PTEs concentrations were determined by ICP-MS. Questionnaires were applied to collect sociodemographic information and workplace details. Principal component analysis, Mann-Whitney test, cluster and a logistic regression analysis based on environment-wide association studies (EWAS) were carried out. Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb concentrations in the air samples were higher than occupational guidelines. Eighty percent of the workers were female, and 43.5% of those females then worked as welder. A significant difference was found for Pb concentration between the exposed and control group (p < 0.0001) and between sexes (p = 0.0046). For Cu (p < 0.0001) and Sb (p = 0.0434), differences were found between the sexes. The receiver operating characteristic of the EWAS was 0.80, providing evidence of a potential model to associate exposure levels and occupational factors. PTEs concentrations in the air samples raised concerns, particularly for children, who were in the same exposure scenario. Inadequate work conditions were observed in the houses, revealing the need of public actions to protect these families.

Lead exposure from households and school settings: influence of diet on blood lead levels.

Lead is known as a potent toxicant to human health, particularly for children while their central nervous system is developing. The aim of this study was to investigate the associations between blood lead levels (BLLs) and lead exposure in the children's diet, home, and school environments. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 153 children aged 1-4 years, in four day care centers (DCCs), where a high prevalence of lead exposure was previously found. Lead determination by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GF-AAS) was performed for venous blood, drinking water collected in the DCCs, and the 24-h diet (n = 64). Environmental screenings were conducted to evaluate lead concentrations in the tableware, buildings, and playground items in all DCCs and children's homes (n = 18) by using a field-portable X-ray fluorescence analyzer (FP-XRF). The BLL mean was 2.71 µg dL-1. Means for 24-h lead concentrations in the diet were 1.61 and 2.24 µg kg-1 of body weight (BW) in two DCCs. Lead concentrations in the water supply were lower than 2 µg L-1. More than 11% of the DCCs' environmental analyses presented lead concentrations higher than or equal to 1 mg cm-2, as defined by the USEPA. The diet was not found to be a risk factor for lead exposure, but households and DCC settings raised concern. Children's exposure to lead in DCC environments, where they spend the most part of their weekdays, appeared to be relevant. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Lead, Cadmium, and Arsenic Bioaccessibility of 24 h Duplicate Diet Ingested by Preschool Children Attending Day Care Centers in Brazil.

Lead, known as a metal with high neurotoxicity to children, cadmium, which is a carcinogenic and bioaccumulative contaminant, and arsenic, a class 1 carcinogenic according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, are toxic elements (TEs) whose relevant route of exposure may be diet. We determined the bio-accessible fraction of lead, cadmium, and arsenic from the diet of preschool children from two day care centers (DCC). A cross-sectional study was conducted with 64 one⁻four-year-old children from two DCCs where the 24-h duplicate diet samples were collected. The diet samples were analyzed by ICP-MS for lead, cadmium, and arsenic total concentrations (n = 64) and their bio-accessibility were analyzed for a subsample (n = 10). The dietary intake (DI) mean for lead, cadmium, and arsenic were 0.18 ± 0.11 µg kg-1 bw, 0.08 ± 0.04 µg kg-1 bw, and 0.61 ± 0.41 µg kg-1 bw, respectively. All DI calculated for TEs, considering total intake, were found lower than the tolerable limits (TL) (European Union, or World Health Organization, WHO, when applicable) except for one child's Pb intake. Bio-accessibilities ranged between 0% to 93%, 0% to 103%, and 0% to 69%, for lead, cadmium, and arsenic, respectively. Although DI for TEs has been found lower than TL, these reference values have been recently decreased or withdrawn since it was for lead and arsenic whose TL were withdrawn by WHO.

High blood lead levels are associated with lead concentrations in households and day care centers attended by Brazilian preschool children.

BACKGROUND: A previous study observed high blood lead levels (BLL) in preschool children attending 50 day care centers (DCC) in São Paulo, Brazil. OBJECTIVE: To identify whether lead levels found in both homes and DCC environments are associated with high blood lead levels. METHODS: Children attending 4 DCCs, quoted here as NR, VA, PS and PF, were divided into two groups according to BLL: high exposure (HE: ≥13.9 µg/dL; 97.5 percentile of the 2013 year sample) and low exposure (LE: <5 µg/dL). For in situ lead measurements (lead paint mode: mg/cm2 and ROHS mode: µg/g) in the children's households and in the DCC environments, a field portable X-ray-fluorescence analyzer was used. Multiple logistic regressions were performed to control for confounding factors. Odds ratios were adjusted for age, sex, day care center's measured lead, and tobacco. RESULTS: In an NR DCC building, 33.8% of the measurements had lead levels >600 µg/g, whereas such levels were observed in 77.1% of NR playground measurements. In VA DCC, 22% and 23% of the measurements in the building and in the playgrounds had levels higher than 600 µg/g, respectively. The percentage of high lead levels in the children's houses of the LE group was 5.9% (95% CI: 4.3-7.6%) and 13.2 (95% CI: 8.3-18.0%) in the HE group. Moreover, a significant association was found between high BLLs and lead levels found both in households and DCCs (p < 0.001). Most of the high lead measurements were found in tiles and playground equipment. CONCLUSIONS: Lead exposure estimated from the DCCs, where children spend about 10 h/day, can be as relevant as their household exposure. Therefore, public authorities should render efforts to provide a rigorous surveillance for lead-free painting supplies and for all objects offered to children.

The environmental impact of informal and home productive arrangement in the jewelry and fashion jewelry chain on sanitary sewer system.

The outsourcing informal home practices adopted in jewelry and fashion jewelry chain can cause toxic substance elimination in the effluents and raise a concern for its environmental impact. This study evaluates if this informal work alters the concentration of potentially toxic elements (PTEs: As, Cd, Cr total and Cr-VI, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Sn, and Zn) in the sewage network. The sanitary sewage samples (n = 540) were collected in 15 manholes during two campaigns in three different areas of Limeira-SP, Brazil (industrial area, with informal work and without known industrial/informal activity). The sewage sludge (n = 12), raw (n = 12), and treated sewage (n = 12) were collected in two wastewater treatment plants (WWT: AS and TATU) operating with different treatment process. The PTE determination was performed by ICP-OES, direct mercury analysis, and UV-Vis spectroscopy. Cr-VI, Cu, Ni, and Zn were the only elements above the quantification limit. Four samples exceeded Cu or Zn values permitted to be discharged into sewage system; however, the concentration average was lower than that established by Brazilian legislation. A difference was found between values above and below the 75th percentile for campaign and total organic carbon values (p < 0.015). The AS-treated sewage presented low concentrations of Cu (p < 0.05), Zn (p = 0.02), and Ni (p = 0.01) compared to treated sewage from TATU. In the sludge samples, the Cu means exceeded the limits of the Brazilian legislation (1500 mg kg-1) and the Zn results were very close to the limits (2800 mg kg-1). The heterogeneity of the results can indicate the sporadic nature of the PTE's sanitary disposal. PTEs used in jewelry and fashion jewelry chain may precipitate on the sludge, where presented high concentrations of Cu and Zn which require controlled destination.

What are the blood lead levels of children living in Latin America and the Caribbean?

INTRODUCTION: Information on the prevalence of lead exposure is essential to formulate efficient public health policies. Developed countries have implemented successful public policies for the prevention and control of lead poisoning. In the United States, Canada, Japan and the European Union, for instance, periodically repeated prevalence studies show that blood lead levels (BLLs) in children have decreased overall. Although BLL of Latino children in the U.S. have also dropped in recent years, the geometric mean remains higher than that of white children. Little is known about lead exposure in children in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). In this review, we responded to two questions: What is currently known about lead sources and levels in children in LAC? Are there public policies to prevent children's exposure to lead in LAC? METHOD: We conducted a literature review covering the period from January 2000 to March 2014 in the PubMed and Lilacs databases to obtain English, Portuguese and Spanish language studies reporting the prevalence of BLLs in children aged 0-18years living in LAC countries. No specific analytical method was selected, and given the scarcity of data, the study was highly inclusive. RESULTS: Fifty-six papers were selected from 16 different LAC countries. The children's BLLs found in this review are high (≥10µg/dL) compared to BLLs for the same age group in the U. S. However, most studies reported an association with some type of "lead hot spot", in which children can be exposed to lead levels similar to those of occupational settings. Only Peru and Mexico reported BLLs in children from population-based studies. CONCLUSIONS: Most BLLs prevalence studies carried out in LAC were in areas with known emission sources. The percentage of children at risk of lead poisoning in LAC is unknown, and probably underestimated. Thus, there is an urgent need to establish public health policies to quantify and prevent lead poisoning, specifically by prioritizing the identification and control of "hot spots".

Avaliação da presença de elementos potencialmente tóxicos decorrentes da produção informal e domiciliar de joias e bijuterias na rede de esgoto sanitário de Limeira-SP / Evaluation of potentially toxic elements in the sanitary sewer system arising from informal and home productive arrangement in the jewelry and fashion jewelry chain from Limeira, SP, Brazil

Introdução: A galvanoplastia faz parte do processo de fabricação de joias e bijuterias e provoca a eliminação de muitas substâncias tóxicas nos lodos e efluentes líquidos. Considerando-se as práticas de terceirização e informalidade doméstica adotadas em algumas regiões de Limeira - SP no arranjo produtivo de joias e bijuterias, há uma preocupação com o impacto ambiental de tais atividades. Objetivos: Este estudo avaliou a presença / concentrações de elementos potencialmente tóxicos (EPTs: Arsênio, Cádmio, Chumbo, Cromo trivalente e hexavalente, Cobre, Estanho, Mercúrio, Níquel e Zinco) no sistema de esgoto do município de LimeiraSP e comparou a concentração de EPTs com os limites da legislação brasileira e internacional. Método: As amostras de esgoto sanitário (n=540) foram coletadas em 15 poços de visita distribuídos em 3 regiões da cidade durante 2 campanhas de coletas, em 2016. As três áreas de coleta foram: industrial; com famílias inseridas no arranjo produtivo informal de joias e bijuterias e uma área sem tais atividades informais ou indústrias conhecidas. Durante cada campanha, foram feitas 3 coletas semanais, durante 3 semanas, sendo uma no período da manhã e outra à tarde. As amostras de lodo de esgoto (n=12), esgoto bruto (n=12) e esgoto tratado (n=12) foram coletadas em duas ETEs da cidade (AS e TATU), as quais operam processos diferentes de tratamento. A determinação da maioria dos EPTs foi realizada por espectrometria de emissão óptica com plasma indutivamente acoplado (ICP OES). A concentração de mercúrio foi determinada no DMA (Direct Mercury Analyser) e de Cr-VI no espectrofotômetro de UV-visível. Para estimar a diluição do esgoto foi determinada a concentração de Carbono Orgânico Total (COT) através de oxidação por combustão catalítica e oxidação química. Resultados: A maioria dos valores de EPTs no esgoto sanitário de Limeira ficou abaixo do limite de detecção dos métodos. Cr-VI, Cu, Ni and Zn foram quantificados abaixo da concentração máxima permitida no Decreto N.8.468. As concentrações de Cr-VI variaram de 0,0093 até 0,61 mg L-1, de Cu ficaram entre valores

Introduction: Electroplating is part of the jewelry and fashion jewelry manufacturing process and causes toxic substances elimination in the sludge and liquid effluents. The outsourcing informal home practices adopted in some regions of Limeira-SP, Brazil in the productive arrangement of jewelry and fashion jewelry raises a concern for its environmental impact. Objectives: This study assessed the presence/concentration of potentially toxic elements (PTEs: As, Cd, Cr and Cr-VI, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Sn and Zn) in Limeira sewage system and compare the PTEs concentration to the Brazilian and other countries legislation limits. Methods: The sanitary sewage samples (n=540) were collected in 15 manholes of different areas during two campaigns in the year 2016. The three collection areas are: industrial area, area with a concentration of families inserted in the informal productive arrangement of jewelry and fashion jewelry and area without known industrial or informal activities. During each month, 3 weekly collections were made, during three weeks, in two periods for day (morning and afternoon). The sewage sludge (n=12), raw sewage (n=12) and treated sewage (n=12) were collected in two Limeiras WWT (AS and TATU), which operates with different treatment process. Most of PTEs determination was performed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP OES), Hg concentration was determined by Direct Mercury Analyzer (DMA) and Cr-VI by UV-Vis. Total Organic Carbon (TOC) concentration was determined to estimate de sewage dilution by the High-Temperature Combustion Method and Wet-Oxidation. Results: Most PTEs results were found be lower than the detection limit of the instrumental techniques. Cr-VI, Cu, Ni and Zn were quantified in concentrations within the State of São Paulo decree N.8.468. Cr-VI concentrations in sanitary sewage ranged from 0.0093 to 0.61 mg L-1, Cu ranged from

Cytotoxic and genotoxic assessment of surface water from São Paulo State, Brazil, during the rainy and dry seasons.

The aim of this study was to determine if the cytotoxic and genotoxic responses of Allium cepa are effective biomarkers of harmful effects caused by polluted river water and if changes in the responses reflect seasonality in the harmful effects. Samples were collected in the dry season (August 2011 and 2012) and rainy season (February 2012 and 2013) at sampling points on the Jaguari River and the Ribeirão Lavapés, in Brazil. Allium cepa bulbs were exposed to the samples, to positive controls (15 µg/L methyl methanesulfonate), and to negative controls (tap water). Three root tips from each bulb were then stained using the Feulgen reaction, then the micronucleus frequency, the mitotic index, and mitotic anomalies were measured. The total number of anomalies (stickiness, c-mitosis, multipolarity, chromosome bridges, and unidentified anomalies) in the rainy season (8.61 ± 3.65) and dry season (7.07 ± 2.96) were significantly different (U = 11.31, p = 0.04). Toxicity, indicated by the formation of micronuclei and the mitotic index, was higher in the February 2012 samples than in the August 2012 samples. The mean manganese concentration (0.13 mg/L) in the rainy season samples was higher than the maximum concentration permitted by the Brazilian National Environmental Council (<0.1 mg/L) and the manganese concentrations positively correlated with chromosomal aberration induction (p = 0.01, r = 0.69). In conclusion, the rainy season samples were more toxic than the dry season samples. This was probably related to rain water carrying compounds with potentially negative impacts into the rivers. These findings highlight the importance of biomonitoring studies and of treating wastewater in urban areas.