Food waste generation and its industrial utilization: An overview.

Food waste is produced for intended human consumption and is normally lost, discharged, contaminated, or finally degraded. The rising problem of food waste is increasing rapidly, so every sector is involved in minimizing food waste generation as well as waste management from collection to disposal, and scientists are developing the best eco-friendly and sustainable solutions for all sectors in the food supply chain, from the agricultural sector to the industrial sector and even up to the retailer to human consumption. Sustainable management is needed for the food wastes in the agricultural and industrial sectors, which are a major burning headache for environmentalists, health departments, and the government all over the earth. Various strategies can be employed to effectively control food waste, and these strategies can be ranked in a manner similar to the waste management hierarchy. The most desirable options involve the act of avoiding and donating edible portions to social agencies. Food waste is utilized in industrial operations to produce biofuels or biopolymers. The next stages involve the retrieval of nutrients and the sequestration of carbon through composting. The government implements appropriate management practices, laws, and orders to minimize food waste generation. Different contemporary methods are utilized to produce biofuel utilizing various types of food waste. In order for composting techniques to recover nutrients and fix carbon, food waste must be processed. Both the management of food waste and the creation of outgrowths utilizing biomaterials require additional study. This review aims to present a comprehensive analysis of the ongoing discourse surrounding the definitions of food waste, the production and implementation of methods to reduce it, the emergence of conversion technologies, and the most recent trends.

Safeguarding drinking water: A brief insight on characteristics, treatments and risk assessment of contamination.

Water pollution stands as a critical worldwide concern, bearing extensive repercussions that extend to human health and the natural ecosystem. The sources of water pollution can be diverse, arising from natural processes and human activities and the pollutants may range from chemical and biological agents to physical and radiological contaminants. The contamination of water disrupts the natural functioning of the system, leading to both immediate and prolonged health problems. Various technologies and procedures, ranging from conventional to advanced, have been developed to eliminate water impurities, with the choice depending on the type and level of contamination. Assessing risks is a crucial element in guaranteeing the safety of drinking water. Till now, research is continuing the removal of contaminates for the sake of supplying safe drinking water. The study examined physical, inorganic, organic, biological and radiological contaminants in drinking water. It looked at where these contaminants come from, their characteristics, the impact they have and successful methods used in real-world situations to clean the contaminated water. Risk assessment methodologies associated with the use of unsafe drinking water as future directives are also taken into consideration in the present study for the benefit of public concern. The manuscript introduces a comprehensive study on water pollution, focusing on assessing and mitigating risks associated with physical, inorganic, organic, biological and radiological contaminants in drinking water, with a novel emphasis on future directives and sustainable solutions for public safety.

Face masks: a COVID-19 protector or environmental contaminant?

Face masks, a prime component of personal protective equipment (PPE) items, have become an integral part of human beings to survive under the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic situation. The global population requires an estimated 130 billion face masks and 64 billion gloves/month, while the COVID-19 pandemic has led to the daily disposal of approximately 3.5 billion single-use face masks, resulting in a staggering 14,245,230.63 kg of face mask waste. The improper disposal of face mask wastes followed by its mismanagement is a challenge to the scientists as the wastes create pollution leading to environmental degradation, especially plastic pollution (macro/meso/micro/nano). Each year, an estimated 0.15-0.39 million tons of COVID-19 face mask waste, along with 173,000 microfibers released daily from discarded surgical masks, could enter the marine environment, while used masks have a significantly higher microplastic release capacity (1246.62 ± 403.50 particles/piece) compared to new masks (183.00 ± 78.42 particles/piece). Surgical face masks emit around 59 g CO2-eq greenhouse gas emissions per single use, cloth face masks emit approximately 60 g CO2-eq/single mask, and inhaling or ingesting microplastics (MPs) caused adverse health problems including chronic inflammation, granulomas or fibrosis, DNA damage, cellular damage, oxidative stress, and cytokine secretion. The present review critically addresses the role of face masks in reducing COVID-19 infections, their distribution pattern in diverse environments, the volume of waste produced, degradation in the natural environment, and adverse impacts on different environmental segments, and proposes sustainable remediation options to tackle environmental challenges posed by disposable COVID-19 face masks.

Landfill: An eclectic review on structure, reactions and remediation approach.

Since the enactment of the Clean Water Act (1972), which was supplemented by increased accountability under Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Subtitle D (1991) and the Clean Air Act Amendments (1996), landfills have indeed been widely used all around the world for treating various wastes. The landfill's biological and biogeochemical processes are believed to be originated about 2 to 4 decades ago. Scopus and web of Science based bibliometric study reveals that there are few papers available in scientific domain. Further, till today not a single paper demonstrated the detailed landfills heterogenicity, chemistry and microbiological processes and their associated dynamics in a combined approach. Accordingly, the paper addresses the recent applications of cutting-edge biogeochemical and biological methods adopted by different countries to sketch an emerging perspective of landfill biological and biogeochemical reactions and dynamics. Additionally, the significance of several regulatory factors controlling the landfill's biogeochemical and biological processes is highlighted. Finally, this article emphasizes the future opportunities for integrating advanced techniques to explain landfill chemistry explicitly. In conclusion, this paper will provide a comprehensive vision of the diverse dimensions of landfill biological and biogeochemical reactions and dynamics to the scientific world and policymakers.

COVID-19: An Accelerator for Global Plastic Consumption and Its Implications.

Plastic has been ingrained in our society. Repercussions on the usage of nonbiodegradable plastics and their problems have been recently realized. Despite its detrimental environmental impact, the COVID-19 epidemic has compelled worldwide citizens to increase their plastic use due to affordability and availability. The volume of hospital solid waste, particularly plastics, is overgrowing due to an unexpected increase in medical waste, culminating in the global waste management catastrophe. Henceforth, adopting good waste management practices along with appropriate technologies and viewing the current issue from a fresh perspective would be an opportunity in this current scenario. Accordingly, this review study will focus on the plastic waste scenario before and during the COVID-19 epidemic. This review also disseminates alternative disposal options and recommends practical solutions to lessen human reliance on traditional plastics. Further, the responsibilities of various legislative and regulatory authorities at the local, regional, and worldwide levels are addressed.

Valorization of wastewater: A paradigm shift towards circular bioeconomy and sustainability.

Limitation in the availability of natural resources like water is the main drive for focussing on resource recovery from wastewater. Rapid urbanization with increased consumption of natural resources has severely affected its management and security. The application of biotechnological processes offers a feasible approach to concentrating and transforming wastewater for resource recovery and a step towards a circular economy. Wastewater generally contains high organic materials, nutrients, metals and chemicals, which have economic value. Hence, its management can be a valuable resource through the implementation of a paradigm transformation for value-added product recovery. This review focuses on the circular economy of "close loop" process by wastewater reuse and energy recovery identifying the emerging technologies for recovering resources across the wastewater treatment phase. Conventional wastewater treatment technologies have been discussed along with the advanced treatment technologies such as algal treatment, anammox technology, microbial fuel cells (MFC). Apart from recovering energy in the form of biogas and biohydrogen, second and third-generation biofuels as well as biohythane and electricity generation have been deliberated. Other options for resource recovery are single-cell protein (SCP), biopolymers as well as recovery of metals and nutrients. The paper also highlights the applications of treated wastewater in agriculture, aquaponics, fisheries and algal cultivation. The concept of Partitions-release-recover (PRR) has been discussed for a better understanding of the filtration treatment coupled with anaerobic digestion. The review provides a critical evaluation on the importance of adopting a circular economy and their role in achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs). Thus, it is imperative that such initiatives towards resource recovery from wastewater through integration of concepts can aid in providing wastewater treatment system with resource efficiency.

Transgenerational effects of polyethylene microplastic fragments containing benzophenone-3 additive in Daphnia magna.

Maternal exposure to microplastics (MPs) plays an important role in the fitness of unexposed progeny. In this study, the transgenerational effects of polyethylene MP fragments (17.35 ± 5.50 µm) containing benzophenone-3 (BP-3; 2.85 ± 0.16% w/w) on chronic toxicity (21 d) in Daphnia magna were investigated across four generations. Only D. magna in the F0 generation was exposed to MP fragments, MP/BP-3 fragments, and BP-3 leachate to identify the transgenerational effect in the F3 generation. The mortality of D. magna induced by MP and MP/BP-3 fragments was recovered in the F3 generation, but somatic growth and reproduction significantly decreased compared to the control. Additionally, reproduction of D. magna exposed to BP-3 leachate significantly decreased in the F3 generation. These findings confirmed the transgenerational effects of MP fragment and BP-3 additive on D. magna. Particularly, the adverse effect on D. magna reproduction seemed to be cumulative across four generations for MP/BP-3 fragments, while it was an acclimation trend for BP-3 leachate. However, there was no significant difference in global DNA methylation in D. magna across four generations, thus requiring a gene-specific DNA methylation study to identify different epigenetic transgenerational inheritance.

Environmental perspectives of COVID-19 outbreaks: A review.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the novel virus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), began in December 2019 in China and has led to a global public health emergency. Previously, it was known as 2019-nCoV and caused disease mainly through respiratory pathways. The COVID-19 outbreak is ranked third globally as the most highly pathogenic disease of the twenty-first century, after the outbreak of SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome in 2002 and 2012, respectively. Clinical, laboratory, and diagnostic methodology have been demonstrated in some observational studies. No systematic reviews on COVID-19 have been published regarding the integration of COVID-19 outbreaks (monitoring, fate and treatment) with environmental and human health perspectives. Accordingly, this review systematically addresses environmental aspects of COVID-19 outbreak such as the origin of SARS-CoV-2, epidemiological characteristics, diagnostic methodology, treatment options and technological advancement for the prevention of COVID-19 outbreaks. Finally, we integrate COVID-19 outbreaks (monitoring, fate and treatment) with environmental and human health perspectives. We believe that this review will help to understand the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak as a multipurpose document, not only for the scientific community but also for global citizens. Countries should adopt emergency preparedness such as prepare human resources, infrastructure and facilities to treat severe COVID-19 as the virus spreads rapidly globally.

Are population size and diverse climatic conditions the driving factors for next COVID-19 pandemic epicenter in India?

Although a nationwide lockdown was imposed in India amid COVID-19 outbreak since March 24, 2020, the COVID-19 infection is increasing day-by-day. Till June 10, 2021 India has recorded 29,182,072 COVID cases and 359,695 deaths. A number of factors help to influence COVID-19 transmission rate and prevalence. Accordingly, the present study intended to integrate the climatic parameters, namely ambient air temperature (AT) and relative humidity (H) with population mass (PM) to determine their influence for rapid transmission of COVID-19 in India. The sensibility of AT, H and PM parameters on COVID-19 transmission was investigated based on receiver operating characteristics (ROC) classification model. The results depicted that AT and H models have very low sensibility (i.e., lower area under curve value 0.26 and 0.37, respectively compared with AUC value 0.5) to induce virus transmission and discrimination between infected people and healthy ones. Contrarily, PM model is highly sensitive (AUC value is 0.912, greater than AUC value 0.5) towards COVID-19 transmission and discrimination between infected people and healthy ones and approximate population of 2.25 million must impose like social distancing, personal hygiene, etc. as strategic management policy. Therefore, it is predicted, India could be the next epicenter of COVID-19 outbreak because of its over population.

Developmental and Neurotoxicity of Acrylamide to Zebrafish.

Acrylamide is a commonly used industrial chemical that is known to be neurotoxic to mammals. However, its developmental toxicity is rarely assessed in mammalian models because of the cost and complexity involved. We used zebrafish to assess the neurotoxicity, developmental and behavioral toxicity of acrylamide. At 6 h post fertilization, zebrafish embryos were exposed to four concentrations of acrylamide (10, 30, 100, or 300 mg/L) in a medium for 114 h. Acrylamide caused developmental toxicity characterized by yolk retention, scoliosis, swim bladder deficiency, and curvature of the body. Acrylamide also impaired locomotor activity, which was measured as swimming speed and distance traveled. In addition, treatment with 100 mg/L acrylamide shortened the width of the brain and spinal cord, indicating neuronal toxicity. In summary, acrylamide induces developmental toxicity and neurotoxicity in zebrafish. This can be used to study acrylamide neurotoxicity in a rapid and cost-efficient manner.

Time-Dependent Naphthalene Toxicity in Anabas testudineus (Bloch): A Multiple Endpoint Biomarker Approach.

Polyaromatic compounds are the major, widespread contaminants in the aquatic environment. However, the adverse impacts of these compounds on blood pathophysiology (hematological profiling and serum biochemical responses) are poorly understood. As a consequence, this study was intended to evaluate the toxic effects of naphthalene, one of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, on the blood pathophysiology of Anabas testudineus using multiple end-point biomarker approach. A. testudineus was exposed to short-term (1 and 5 d) and long-term (10, 15, and 21 d) naphthalene concentrations, that is, T1 (0.71 mg/L indicates 25% of LC50) and T2 (1.42 mg/L indicates 50% of LC50 value). The results disclosed significant decrease in red blood cells, hemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume, and platelet levels, while other blood parameters, namely, white blood cells, percent lymphocyte, mean cell volume, mean corpuscular Hb, and mean corpuscular Hb concentration showed enhanced levels under naphthalene intoxication. Results were more detrimental under T2 concentration. Cholesterol, glucose, calcium, high-density lipoprotein, and low-density lipoprotein levels gradually increased throughout the different exposure periods under T1 and T2 concentrations, while the triglyceride level gradually decreased during exposure periods. Finally, integrated biomarker responses (IBR) analysis indicated that serum biochemical parameters are more powerful than hematological parameters for determining the naphthalene-induced fish health status. Additionally, the IBR study clearly identified that long-term (>5 d) exposure was more harmful than short-term (<5 d) naphthalene exposure. So, these responses may be derived as biomarkers for monitoring naphthalene pollution in an aquatic ecosystem.

Blood Biochemical and Erythrocytic Morpho-pathological Consequences of Naphthalene Intoxication in Indian Teleost, Anabas testudineus (Bloch).

Anabas testudineus (Bloch) was exposed to 0.71 mg/L and 1.42 mg/L (25 and 50% of LC50 value respectively) naphthalene, a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), for 21 days. Blood biochemical parameters and erythrocytic morphological alterations were assessed to describe the naphthalene toxicity. Biochemical analysis showed a significant increase in glutamic pyruvic transaminase, GPT (576.7 ± 11.79 and 608.9 ± 12.08 U/L, respectively) and alkaline phosphatase, ALP (12.9 ± 0.69 and 13.4 ±â€¯0.64 U/L, respectively) activities under two doses compared with control. Protein and albumin (ALB) content in blood decreased significantly, in comparison with control value in the tune of 22.67 ±â€¯1.04 and 23.97 ±â€¯1.24 g/dl, respectively and 10.7 ±â€¯0.79 and 11.1 ±â€¯0.67 g/dl, respectively. Erythrocytes showed varied symptomatic morphological changes under naphthalene exposure, which included severe denaturation, swelling in cells, appearance of sickle and tear drop cells, and cellular vacuolation. In particularly, the changes were more prominent under higher naphthalene exposure. Following the results, it has been able to establish that GPT, ALP, protein and ALB, and the morphological manifestations of erythrocytes would be good tools of biomarker in monitoring toxicological paradigm, especially to naphthalene exposure in aquatic bodies.

Linking multiple biomarker responses in Daphnia magna under thermal stress.

Temperature is an important abiotic variable that greatly influences the performance of aquatic ectotherms, especially under current anthropogenic global warming and thermal discharges. The aim of the present study was to evaluate thermal stress (20 °C vs 28 °C) in Daphnia magna over 21 d, focusing on the linkage among molecular and biochemical biomarker responses. Thermal stress significantly increased the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation, especially in the 3-d short-term exposure treatment. This change in the ROS level was also correlated with mitochondrial membrane damage. These findings suggest that oxidative stress is the major pathway for thermally-induced toxicity of D. magna. Additionally, the expression levels of genes related to hypoxia (Hb), development (Vtg1), and sex determination (Dsx1-α, Dsx1-ß, and Dsx2) were greatly increased by elevated temperature in a time-dependent manner. The cellular energy allocation was markedly decreased at the elevated temperature in the 3-d exposure treatment, mainly due to carbohydrates consumption for survival (oxidative stress defense). The present study showed that linking multiples biomarker responses are crucial for understanding the underlying mechanism of thermal stress on D. magna.

Acute toxicity assessment of arsenic, chromium and almix 20WP in Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis tadpoles.

Heavy metals and herbicide are gaining serious environmental concern in aquatic toxicology due to its adverse effects on aquatic organisms especially amphibians. Accordingly, present study first time evaluated the acute toxicity of two heavy metals [arsenic (As3+) and chromium (Cr6+)] and a herbicide (Almix) to Indian skittering frog tadpole, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis. The LC50 values of As, Cr and Almix for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h were 73.58, 56.31, 43.58 and 32.58 mg L-1; 326.68, 224.31, 171.92 and 141.99 mg L-1; and 1297.85, 1148.22, 1033.62 and 955.17 mg L-1, respectively. It also revealed the concentration- and time-dependent increased mortality rate under these toxicants. The safety concentrations (SC) of As, Cr and Almix to tadpoles were 3.26, 14.20 and 95.52 mg L-1, respectively. The findings disclosed that As is highly toxic to E. cyanophlyctis than Cr and Almix. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity showed varied responses to exposed chemicals. In particularly, ALP activity reduced significantly for Cr treatment. Glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity in E. cyanophlyctis was significantly inhibited by As treatment (p < 0.05); however, GST activity was remain unchanged for Cr and Almix (p > 0.05). The As toxicity correlates positively with GST inhibition (r = 0.779, p < 0.01); contrarily, Cr and Almix revealed negative correlation with GST induction (r = -0.461 and -0.19, respectively; p > 0.05). This result indicated that GST play a crucial role for regulating the tadpole mortality and intoxication by As, Cr and Almix. Overall, our findings demonstrate the different levels of toxic sensitivity (adverse effects) under different toxicants on E. cyanophlyctis tadpoles. Finally, the present findings could be used as baseline information of toxicosis for metalloid, heavy metal and herbicide exposures in wild frog populations.

Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic characterization and tracing nutrient sources of Ulva blooms around Jeju coastal areas.

The present investigation was aimed to characterize the Ulva blooms and to identify the probable sources for Ulva blooms along the Jeju Island coast for pertinent control measures. Algal isotope signatures (δ13C, δ15N and δ18O) and tissue nitrogen and carbon were analyzed to map nutrient sources around the Jeju coastal areas. The algal δ13C values were ranged from -20.52 to -4.39‰, while δ15N and δ18O values ranged from 4.26 to 8.29‰ and 12.80-17.34‰, respectively. Moreover, site-specific significant differences were observed in algal stable isotope (δ13C, δ15N and δ18O) values. The bi-plot (δ15N vs δ18O) diagram indicated four dominant nitrogen sources along the Jeju coast, with 1) soil organic nitrogen mixed with livestock wastes (spring water samples and E), the 2) synthetic fertilizer input (A3 and B2), 3) sewage discharge (D1, D2 and I3) and 4) aquaculture waste (fish farm samples, A4, A5, B1, G and I2). Present findings revealed the different potential nitrogen sources for localized increase of algal growth along the Jeju coast. Finally, the present findings could be used as baseline data for efficient nutrient management to remediate Ulva blooms along Jeju coastal environment.

Time-Dependent Responses of Oxidative Stress, Growth, and Reproduction of Daphnia magna Under Thermal Stress.

The present study evaluated the effects of temperature (20 and 25°C) on the oxidative stress responses and life-history traits of Daphnia magna depending on exposure time. Daphnid exposed to an elevated temperature for 21 days had notably higher activities of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione S-transferase while the enzyme activities did not differ significantly between the two temperature groups for daphnid exposed for 5 days. However, the results of body length were opposite where only the 5 days exposure daphnid had significantly longer bodies at 25°C compared to those at 20°C (p < 0.05). Despite the earlier reproduction for daphnids at 25°C, the cumulative number of offspring per female for 21 days was not significantly different from those at 20°C (p < 0.05). These findings suggest that D. magna undergo strategic changes in oxidative stress response, growth, and reproduction throughout the exposure period of 21 days.

Integrated Biomarker Responses in Livers of the Pale Chub Zacco platypus for Risk Assessment of a Stream Contaminated by Wastewater Effluents.

We evaluated the effects of wastewater effluents on pale chub (Zacco platypus) in a contaminated stream by integrating genotoxic, oxidative stress, histological, and physiological biomarkers. The metal pollution index indicated higher pollution loads at downstream sites (DS1 and DS2) compared with the upstream reference site. Significantly higher nuclear abnormality confirmed the existence of genotoxicity (p < 0.05) at downstream sites. Antioxidant activity (catalase and glutathione S-transferase) and lipid peroxidation levels in livers of Z. platypus were also significantly higher at the DS1 site (p < 0.05). The liver somatic index was also influenced, with abnormal histological alterations in the liver, possibly caused by heavy metal accumulation (Cd, Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, and Pb). The integrated biomarker response value was the highest at DS1 (13.74) followed by DS2 (1.94), indicating that wastewater effluents had the potential to cause adverse effects on Z. platypus inhabiting receiving stream.

Assessment of adverse outcome of Excel Mera 71 in Anabas testudineus by histological and ultrastructural alterations.

Present study was designed to evaluate the adverse effect of glyphosate-based herbicide, Excel Mera 71 in Anabas testudineus on comparative basis under field and laboratory conditions. Field (750 g/acre) and laboratory (17.2 mg/L) experiments were performed for a period of 30 days. For field experiment special type of cages were prepared. Fish gill, liver, and kidney were analyzed for histology and ultrastructural responses. A significant increment in morphometric indices (DTC) was observed in gill, liver and kidney of A. testudineus under laboratory condition (p < 0.05) and responses showed the degree of pathogenicity in the order of liver > kidney > gills. However, under field study significant increase in DTC value was observed in gill and liver (p < 0.05). Among the scanning electron microscopic (SEM) observations necrosis and loss of microridges, and damage in stratified epithelial cells were prominent in gill, although higher prevalence of alterations was observed under laboratory study than field study. Additionally, transmission electron microscopic (TEM) observations also depicted higher prevalence of pathological lesions under laboratory study compared with field observation. Among the TEM observations damage in chloride and pavement cells, degenerative mitochondria and nucleus (in gill); severe vacuolation, necrosed nucleus and vesiculated network in case of liver and degenerated epithelial cells, cytoplasmic vacuolation, and damage in proximal convoluted tubules (PCT) in case of kidney were prominent. Therefore, these findings demonstrated that Excel Mera 71 induces significant damage in tissues of A. testudineus and these responses might be considered as biomarkers for monitoring herbicidal toxicity on fish in aquatic body.

Histopathological and Ultrastructural Alterations in Some Organs of Oreochromis niloticus Exposed to Glyphosate-based Herbicide, Excel Mera 71.

Oreochromis niloticus was exposed to glyphosate-based herbicide Excel Mera 71 for 30 days under field and laboratory conditions to investigate the histopathological and ultrastructural responses in gill, liver, and kidney. Gill displayed degenerative changes in the pillar cells of gill epithelium, curling of secondary lamella, and appearance of globular structure in laboratory condition under light microscopy. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) observations revealed loss of microridges, disappearance of normal array of microridges, and damage in stratified epithelial cells under both the conditions, while severe vacuolation and necrosis were prominent under transmission electron microscopic (TEM) study in the laboratory condition. In liver, excess fat deposition and acentric nuclei in the laboratory condition were prominent under light microscopic and SEM study. TEM study showed necrosis in mitochondria, cytoplasmic vacuolation, degeneration in endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and reduced amount of glycogen droplets, but under field condition, lesions were less. Kidney showed fragmented glomerulus, excessive fat deposition, and hypertrophied nuclei under light microscope, while topological study showed shrinkage of glomerulus and degenerative changes under laboratory condition. TEM study also confirmed necrosis in mitochondria, dilation and fragmentation of ER, and appearance of severe vacuolation in the laboratory study, but no significant alterations were observed in field under SEM and TEM study. Therefore, the present study depicts that Excel Mera 71 caused comparatively less pathological lesions under field than laboratory condition, and finally, these responses could be considered as bioindicators for toxicity study in aquatic ecosystem.

Acute Toxicity and Oxidative Stress Responses in Tadpole of Skittering Frog, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Schneider, 1799) to Sodium Fluoride Exposure.

This study evaluated the acute toxicity and oxidative stress responses to sodium fluoride (NaF) exposure in tadpoles of the skittering frog, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Schneider 1799). The 96 h LC50 value was found to be 647 mg/L. Biochemical tests were conducted at 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70% and 80% of the 96 h LC50 dose. Cholinesterase (ChE) activity was unaffected. Lipid peroxidation levels significantly increased (p < 0.05) at lower concentrations, but decreased significantly with increasing NaF concentrations. Glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity also increased significantly with increasing NaF concentrations. Alkaline phosphatase levels steadily decreased with increasing concentrations of NaF. The responses for the biochemical tests were summarized using an integrated biomarker response (IBR) index approach, which indicated that lower NaF exposures caused higher levels of oxidative stress responses overall. These findings suggest that the IBR index approach may be useful for the quantitative monitoring of NaF toxicity in amphibians.