Radiographic analysis of the growth rate of long bones in bustards.

A serial radiographic study was conducted on seven houbara bustard (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii), 10 rufous-crested bustard (Eupodotis ruficrista), four white-bellied bustard (Eupodotis senegalensis) and eight kori bustard (Ardeotis kori) chicks to determine the growth rate of long bones and to establish radiographic standards for assessing skeletal maturity. The growth rates of the tarsometatarsus and tibiotarsus in the bustard species investigated were similar to those in domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) and some long-legged avian species. Maturation of long bones occurred earlier in houbara bustards compared with rufous-crested, white-bellied and kori bustards.

Age-related plasma chemistry changes in houbara and kori bustards in the United Arab Emirates.

Plasma chemistry parameters were measured in adult (> 1.5 yr) and juvenile (4-8 and 9-16 wk) captive houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii) and from adult (> 1.5 yr) and juvenile (4-8, 9-16, 17-24, 25-32, 33-40 and 41-52 wk) captive kori bustards (Ardeotis kori) to study age-related changes. A comparison of the values obtained was made between adult and juvenile bustards of both species and from the literature with other bustard species. Significant differences between adult and juvenile bustards of both species were found for glucose, total protein, alkaline phosphatase (ALKP), aspartate amino transferase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase, and calcium. Some parameters, such as calcium, showed comparable age-related changes in both species. In contrast, other parameters showed clear differences in the type (ALT, AST) or magnitude (ALKP) of age-related change between the species, demonstrating the importance of determining normal values for individual species. The results obtained from this study provide blood chemistry values for these species and demonstrate age-related differences between adult and juvenile birds.

Serum bile acids in captive bustards.

Blood samples were collected from clinically normal male and female houbara (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii), kori (Ardeotis kori), buff-crested (Eupodotis ruficrista gindiana) and white-bellied bustards (E. senegalensis) to determine serum bile acid concentrations. Bile acid concentrations were determined by analysis with an Ultrospec 3000 ultraviolet/visible spectrophotometer, using an enzymatic bile acid test. The results provided values of serum bile acid concentrations for the four species, with means +/- standard errors of 35.8 +/- 2.8 mumol; 51.1 +/- 5.0 mumol; 18.4 +/- 2.1 mumol and 20.8 +/- 5.4 mumol for the houbara, kori, buff-crested and white-bellied bustard, respectively. Although no gender or age differences were detected within species, the results demonstrated significant differences in concentrations in clinically normal individuals between the different species.

Intestinal protozoa and associated bacteria in captive houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata) in the United Arab Emirates.

A protozoal survey was carried out in 114 captive houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata) in the United Arab Emirates. Trichomonas gallinarum, Chilomastix gallinarum, Giardia spp. and Lophomonas spp. were detected from faecal samples of 49 (43%) captive houbara bustards. Culture and identification studies were carried out to assess associated bacteria. The bacteria isolated from birds negative to protozoa included Enterococcus spp., Aerococcus spp., Micrococci spp., Proteus spp., Enterobacter spp., Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp., while Enterococcus spp., Micrococci kristinae, Aerococcus spp., Staphylococcus sciuri, Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Klebsiella spp. and Alcaligenes faecalis were isolated from protozoa positive birds. Proteus spp., Enterobacter spp., E. coli , Klebsiella spp., Aerococcus spp. and Enterococcus spp. are considered part of the normal intestinal bacterial flora of captive bustards and they were also isolated from the food items used to feed the captive bustards. S. sciuri possibly originated from ingested mice; Alcaligenes faecalis and Micrococcus spp. are contaminants from soil or water.

Radiographic monitoring of the ossification of long bones in kori (Ardeotis kori) and white-bellied (Eupodotis senegalensis) bustards.

A serial radiographic study was conducted on eight kori bustard (Ardeotis kori) and four white-bellied bustard (Eupodotis senegalensis) chicks to determine the pattern of long bone development and to establish radiographic standards for assessing skeletal maturity. The ossification pattern, appearance of secondary ossification centres, and epiphyseal fusion of the long bones in kori and white-bellied bustards were similar to those in houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii), rufous-crested bustards (Eupodotis ruficrista), domestic fowl (Gallus gallus), house wrens (Troglodytes aedon aedon), racing pigeons (Columba livia). and barn owls (Tyto alba). Secondary ossification centres were present at the proximal and distal tibiotarsus, proximal tarsometatarsus and proximal metacarpal III. The ossification of long bones occurred earlier in female kori bustards compared with males.

Duodenal volvulus in free-living green turtles from coastal United Arab Emirates.

Post-mortem examinations performed during May and August of 1997 on three free-living green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in the United Arab Emirates revealed that all had stomachs full of fresh seagrass (approximately 99% of the total ingesta) and presented with a duodenal volvulus involving a length of approximately 100 cm. Duodeni appeared empty and necrotic with diffuse purple-black mucosa. No apparent signs of obstruction by foreign objects, acute endoparasitism, or other disorders were observed. In all cases, duodenal volvulus was diagnosed, the cause of which may have been dietary in origin. The rise in water temperature, with an associated rise in the temperature of seagrass, thus enhancing the over-fermentation of ingesta with the subsequent liberation of excessive amounts of gas was the probable cause of volvulus formation. Ingestion of foreign bodies and physical movement also are discussed as causes of digestive disorders. It is recommended that handlers should avoid 360 degrees rotation when overturning turtles onto their carapaces.

Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after intravenous, intramuscular and oral administration in houbara bustard (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii).

The in-vitro activity of enrofloxacin against 117 strains of bacteria isolated from bustards was determined. Minimum inhibitory concentrations for 72% of the Proteus spp., E. coli, Salmonella spp. and Klebsiella spp. (n = 61) and for 48% of the Streptococci spp. and Staphylococci spp. (n = 31) were < or = 0.5 microg/mL. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 76% of Pseudomonas spp. (n = 25) was < or = 2 microg/mL. Fourteen strains were resistant to concentrations > or = 128 microg/mL. The elimination half-lives (t1/2 elim beta) (mean +/- SEM) of 10 mg/kg enrofloxacin in eight houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata) were 6.80 +/- 0.79, 6.39 +/- 1.49 and 5.63 +/- 0.54 h after oral (p.o.), intramuscular (i.m.) and intravenous (i.v.) administration, respectively. Enrofloxacin was rapidly absorbed from the bustard gastro-intestinal tract and maximum plasma concentrations of 1.84 +/- 0.16 microg/mL were achieved after 0.66 +/- 0.05 h. Maximum plasma concentration after i.m. administration of 10 mg/kg was 2.75 +/- 0.11 microg/mL at 1.72 +/- 0.19 h. Maximum plasma concentration after i.m. administration of 15 mg/kg in two birds was 4.86 microg/mL. Bioavailability was 97.3 +/- 13.7% and 62.7 +/- 11.1% after i.m. and oral administration, respectively. Plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin > or = 0.5 microg/mL were maintained for at least 12 h for all routes at 10 mg/kg and for 24 h after i.m. administration at 15 mg/kg. Plasma enrofloxacin concentrations were monitored during the first 3 days of treatment in five houbara bustards and kori bustards (Ardeotis kori) with bacterial infections receiving a single daily i.m. injection of 10 mg/kg for 3 days. The mean plasma enrofloxacin concentrations in the clinical cases at 27 and 51 h (3.69 and 3.86 microg/mL) and at 48 h (0.70 microg/mL) were significantly higher compared with the 3 h and 24 h time intervals from clinically normal birds. The maximum plasma concentration (Cmax)/MIC ratio was ranked i.v. (10/mg/kg) > i.m. (15 mg/kg) > i.m. (10 mg/kg) > oral (10 mg/kg), but it was only higher than 8:1 for i.v. and i.m. administrations of enrofloxacin at 10 mg/kg and 15 mg/kg, respectively, against a low MIC (0.5 microg/mL). A dosage regimen of 10 mg/kg repeated every 12 h, or 15 mg/kg repeated every 24 h, would be expected to give blood concentrations above 0. 5 microg/mL and hence provide therapeutic response in the bustard against a wide range of bacterial infections.

Maternal transfer of paramyxovirus type 1 antibodies and antibody response to a live Newcastle disease vaccine in kori bustards.

Studies were conducted to monitor the decline of maternal antibodies to paramyxovirus type 1 (PMV-1) in kori bustard chicks (Ardeotis kori), and to determine the antibody response in birds with low levels of maternally derived immunity (MDI) after being given either one or five times the standard domestic fowl dose of a live PMV-1 La Sota vaccine intranasally. The results confirmed that PMV-1 antibodies were transferred to eggs and chicks derived from kori bustard hens immunized with inactivated vaccine 5 to 8 mo previously. The levels of inherited antibody in chicks varied considerably, with 21% of birds having no detectable antibodies at day 14 Chicks hatched from dams with high hemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibody titers had high titers of MDI. Mean antibody levels in seropositive chicks were log2 6.3 and log2 2.9 on days 14 and 42, respectively. The rate of decline of detectable antibodies (1 log2), was estimated to be 5.50 to 6.25 days and 12.25 days in 14 to 21 and 28 to 42 day old chicks, respectively. There was no significant HI antibody response in bustards given a primary vaccination of either one or five times the standard domestic fowl dose of live vaccine intranasally up to 3 wk post-vaccination. High levels of HI antibodies, log2 7.4, were detected in birds given a secondary dose of inactivated vaccine, but not in birds given a secondary dose of live vaccine at 2 wk post-vaccination.

Antimicrobial resistance and minimum inhibitory concentrations of bacteria isolated from bustards in the United Arab Emirates.

The resistance to 11 antimicrobial agents of bacteria isolated from clinical and postmortem cases of five species of bustards maintained in captivity in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) from 1995 to 1997 was determined by disc sensitivity. Of 226 isolates, 169 (74.8%) were gram-negative bacilli, with the majority identified as Escherichia coli (28.8%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (19%). The isolates of E. coli showed a high prevalence of resistance to amoxycillin (69%), tetracycline (66.7%), and sulphamethoxazole (43.3%). Moderate resistance to enrofloxacin was observed in E. coli (30%) and P. aeruginosa (19%) isolates. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) to seven antimicrobial agents were determined for 133 bacterial isolates from bustards during 1996 to 1997. Enrofloxacin (concentration required to inhibit 50% of the isolates [MIC50] < 0.5 microgram/ml) and gentamicin (MIC50 < or = 1.0 microgram/ml) exhibited good activity against both gram-negative bacilli and staphylococci isolated from bustards. Enrofloxacin (MIC50 < or = 1.5 micrograms/ml), gentamicin (MIC50 < or = 2.0 micrograms/ml), and piperacillin (MIC50 < or = 4.0 micrograms/ml) exhibited good activity against P. aeruginosa isolates. Amoxycillin/clavulanic acid showed good activity (concentration required to inhibit 90% of the isolates [MIC90] < or = 2.0 micrograms/ml) against gram-positive cocci and moderate activity (MIC50 < or = 3.0 micrograms/ml) against E. coli, Salmonella spp., and Klebsiella spp. Amoxycillin exhibited good activity (MIC50 < or = 0.5 microgram/ml) against gram-positive organisms and moderate activity (MIC50 < or = 1.0 microgram/ml) against Salmonella spp. These results provide information on the prevalence of resistant bacterial strains and the MICs of organisms derived from bustards in the UAE.

Antibody response of kori bustards (Ardeotis kori) and houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata) to live and inactivated Newcastle disease vaccines.

Adult houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata) and juvenile kori bustards (Ardeotis kori) were given four regimens of commercially available inactivated and live poultry paramyxovirus type 1 (PMV-1) vaccines. Immunologic response to vaccination was assessed by hemagglutination inhibition assay of serum. Kori bustards, to which a dose of 0.5 ml of a commercially available inactivated vaccine for poultry had been administered intramuscularly (0.15 ml/kg body weight), failed to develop hemagglutinating antibodies, but antibody titers of low intensity and duration were detected following administration of a second and third subcutaneous dose of 2.0 ml vaccine per bird (0.40-0.45 ml/kg). In subsequent trials, when inactivated vaccine was administered subcutaneously at 1.0 ml/kg body weight following two or four live vaccinations administered by the ocular route, juvenile kori bustards developed higher, more persistent titers of antibodies. Kori bustards given four live vaccinations followed by inactivated vaccine developed higher titers of longer duration compared with kori bustards given two live vaccines followed by inactivated vaccine. Antibody titers of kori bustards given inactivated vaccine were higher and more persistent than the antibody response to live vaccination. Houbara bustards, previously vaccinated with inactivated vaccine, that were given a booster dose of inactivated vaccine maintained high mean antibody titers (> or = log, 5) for 52 wk. The authors recommend that inactivated PMV-1 vaccine should be administered by subcutaneous injection of 1.0 ml/kg vaccine to bustards. Adult bustards, previously vaccinated with inactivated vaccine, should be vaccinated annually with inactivated vaccine. Juvenile bustards should receive a second dose of inactivated vaccine 4-6 mo after the first dose of inactivated vaccine. Even though inactivated PMV-1 vaccines induced hemagglutination inhibition antibodies and produced no adverse reactions, further studies will be required to determine the protective efficacy of the antibody.

Age-related plasma chemistry findings in the buff-crested bustard (Eupodotis ruficrista gindiana).

Blood samples were obtained from adult (> 1.5 years) and juvenile (2-8 weeks, 9-16 weeks and 17-24 weeks) captive buff-crested bustards (Eupodotis ruficrista gindiana) to study age-related changes. A total of twelve different tests were conducted using a Hitachi 90011 wet chemistry analyzer. A comparison of the values obtained was made between adult and juvenile buff-crested bustards and from the literature with other bustard species. Significant differences between adult and juvenile buff-crested bustards were found for glucose, uric acid, total protein, alkaline phosphatase, asparatate amino transferase and calcium. The results obtained from this study provide blood chemistry values for this species and demonstrate age-related differences between adult and juvenile birds.

Developmental intestinal aerobic microflora in the kori bustard (Ardeotis kori).

A study was carried out to investigate the normal aerobic bacterial flora of developing kori bustard (Ardeotis kori) chicks, captive bred at the National Avian Research Center, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Faecal samples were collected from 14 birds at different ages from the first day of hatching until 99 days old and were cultured for aerobic bacteria. Several bacterial species were isolated from the cultures, they included Escherichia coli, Streptococcus viridians, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella oxytoca, Proteus spp., Enterobacter, spp. and Serratia marcescens. Gram-negative bacilli were isolated from all but one of the faecal samples collected. They were also the predominant bacteria, accounting for between 55.6 and 73.4% of the mean colony count of faecal cultures from all age groups. E. coli was the most frequently isolated bacteria, the frequency and mean colony count increased as the birds grew older. Gram-positive cocci were isolated from between 50 and 100% of the faecal samples from all age groups, and they accounted for between 26.6 and 44.4% of the mean colony count. Results from this study indicated that Gram-negative bacilli and Gram-positive cocci can be isolated frequently from the faeces of developing, clinically normal, captive bred kori bustard chicks.