Adolescent binge-ethanol accelerates cognitive impairment and ß-amyloid production and dysregulates endocannabinoid signaling in the hippocampus of APP/PSE mice.

Previous research in rodents suggests that the long-term neurobehavioral disturbances induced by chronic ethanol (EtOH) exposure could be due to endocannabinoid system (ECS) alterations. Moreover, ECS failure has been proposed to mediate the cognitive impairment and ß-amyloid production in Alzheimer disease (AD). Thus, in the present study, we evaluated the effects of adolescent EtOH binge drinking on the cognitive disturbances, hippocampal ß-amyloid levels, and in the ECS expression on a transgenic mouse model (APP/PSEN, AZ) of AD. We exposed AZ and wild-type mice to a binge-drinking treatment during adolescence. At 6 and 12 months of age, we evaluated hippocampal-dependent learning and memory: ß-amyloid concentrations and RNA and protein levels of cannabinoid type-2 receptors (CB2), diacylglycerol lipase-α (DAGLα), and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) in the hippocampus. The results showed that binge-EtOH treatment worsens cognitive function and increases ß-amyloid levels in AZ. At 6 months, EtOH heightens CB2 (RNA and protein) and DAGLα (RNA) expression in wild type but not in AZ. On the contrary, EtOH enhances MAGL RNA expression only in AZ. At 12 months, AZ displays increased levels of CB2 (RNA and protein) and DAGLα (protein) compared with control. Similar to what happens at 6 months, EtOH induces an increase in CB2 gene expression in wild type but not in AZ; however, it augments CB2 and DAGLα protein levels in both genotypes. Therefore, we propose that adolescent binge drinking accelerates cognitive deficits associated with aging and AD. It also accelerates hippocampal ß-amyloid accumulation in AZ and affects differently the ECS response in wild type and AZ.

Central relaxin-3 receptor (RXFP3) activation impairs social recognition and modulates ERK-phosphorylation in specific GABAergic amygdala neurons.

In mammals, the extended amygdala is a neural hub for social and emotional information processing. In the rat, the extended amygdala receives inhibitory GABAergic projections from the nucleus incertus (NI) in the pontine tegmentum. NI neurons produce the neuropeptide relaxin-3, which acts via the Gi/o-protein-coupled receptor, RXFP3. A putative role for RXFP3 signalling in regulating social interaction was investigated by assessing the effect of intracerebroventricular infusion of the RXFP3 agonist, RXFP3-A2, on performance in the 3-chamber social interaction paradigm. Central RXFP3-A2, but not vehicle, infusion, disrupted the capacity to discriminate between a familiar and novel conspecific subject, but did not alter differentiation between a conspecific and an inanimate object. Subsequent studies revealed that agonist-infused rats displayed increased phosphoERK(pERK)-immunoreactivity in specific amygdaloid nuclei at 20 min post-infusion, with levels similar to control again after 90 min. In parallel, we used immunoblotting to profile ERK phosphorylation dynamics in whole amygdala after RXFP3-A2 treatment; and multiplex histochemical labelling techniques to reveal that after RXFP3-A2 infusion and social interaction, pERK-immunopositive neurons in amygdala expressed vesicular GABA-transporter mRNA and displayed differential profiles of RXFP3 and oxytocin receptor mRNA. Overall, these findings demonstrate that central relaxin-3/RXFP3 signalling can modulate social recognition in rats via effects within the amygdala and likely interactions with GABA and oxytocin signalling.

Modulation of forebrain function by nucleus incertus and relaxin-3/RXFP3 signaling.

The nucleus incertus (NI) in the pontine tegmentum sends ascending projections to the midbrain, hypothalamus, amygdala, basal forebrain, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex, and has a postulated role in modulating several forebrain functions. A substantial population of GABAergic NI neurons expresses the neuropeptide, relaxin-3, which acts via the Gi/o -protein-coupled receptor, RXFP3, present throughout the forebrain target regions. Broad and specific manipulations of these systems by activation or inhibition of the NI or modulating RXFP3 signaling have revealed key insights into the likely influence of the NI/relaxin-3/RXFP3 system on modalities including arousal, feeding, stress responses, anxiety and addiction, and attention and memory. This range of actions corresponds to a likely impact of NI/(relaxin-3) projections on multiple integrated circuits, but makes it difficult to draw conclusions about a generalized function for this network. This review will focus on the key physiological process of oscillatory theta rhythm and the neural circuits that promote it during behavioral activation, highlighting the ability of NI and relaxin-3/RXFP3 signaling systems to modulate these circuits. A better understanding of these mechanisms may provide a way to therapeutically adjust malfunction of forebrain activity present in several pathological conditions.

Characterization of serum proteins attached to distinct sol-gel hybrid surfaces.

The success of a dental implant depends on its osseointegration, an important feature of the implant biocompatibility. In this study, two distinct sol-gel hybrid coating formulations [50% methyltrimethoxysilane: 50% 3-glycidoxypropyl-trimethoxysilane (50M50G) and 70% methyltrimethoxysilane with 30% tetraethyl orthosilicate (70M30T)] were applied onto titanium implants. To evaluate their osseointegration, in vitro and in vivo assays were performed. Cell proliferation and differentiation in vitro did not show any differences between the coatings. However, four and eight weeks after in vivo implantation, the fibrous capsule area surrounding 50M50G-implant was 10 and 4 times, respectively, bigger than the area of connective tissue surrounding the 70M30T treated implant. Thus, the in vitro results gave no prediction or explanation for the 50M50G-implant failure in vivo. We hypothesized that the first protein layer adhered to the surface may have direct implication in implant osseointegration, and perhaps correlate with the in vivo outcome. Human serum was used for adsorption analysis on the biomaterials, the first layer of serum proteins adhered to the implant surface was analyzed by proteomic analysis, using mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). From the 171 proteins identified; 30 proteins were significantly enriched on the 50M50G implant surface. This group comprised numerous proteins of the immune complement system, including several subcomponents of the C1 complement, complement factor H, C4b-binding protein alpha chain, complement C5 and C-reactive protein. This result suggests that these proteins enriched in 50M50G surface might trigger the cascade leading to the formation of the fibrous capsule observed. The implications of these results could open up future possibilities to predict the biocompatibility problems in vivo. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater, 106B: 1477-1485, 2018.

The African striped mouse Lemniscomys barbarus as a model for aggression. Brain areas activated by agonistic encounters

During agonistic behavior several brain areas became differentially activated depending on the role the subject is taking. Several areas are mostly activated during the offender role and several others are activated if the subject plays a defensive role. The main goal of this work is to study in detail the anatomic areas involved in agonistic behavior using a novel animal model, the striped mouse Lemniscomys barbarus, a North African diurnal rodent well known by its natural high aggressiveness toward conspecifics. After social encounters, neural activation in brain areas related to agonistic behavior was measured by c-fos immunostaining. The encounters were recorded and behaviors related to the encounter were analyzed. We differentiated between the aggressive behavior (offender) and escape behavior (defender or defeated). Our results showed that conspecific confrontation induced general c-fos activation in both offender and defender in all measured areas in comparison with non-confronted control. Differences in neural activity between offender and defender were observed specifically in the lateral, cortical and medial amygdala, suprachiasmatic nucleus and the nucleus incertus, suggesting a potential role of these areas in displaying different kinds of behavior during conspecific confrontation. We found that, while in the lateral, medial and cortical amygdala defenders express significantly more c-fos than offenders, in the nucleus incertus of the brainstem the differential activation is just the opposite, Additionally, defenders display significantly more freezing than offenders. This work provides data showing that Lemniscomys barbarus is a widely useful model to study the anatomic background supporting agonistic behavior

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GABAergic Neurons in the Rat Medial Septal Complex Express Relaxin-3 Receptor (RXFP3) mRNA.

The medial septum (MS) complex modulates hippocampal function and related behaviors. Septohippocampal projections promote and control different forms of hippocampal synchronization. Specifically, GABAergic and cholinergic projections targeting the hippocampal formation from the MS provide bursting discharges to promote theta rhythm, or tonic activity to promote gamma oscillations. In turn, the MS is targeted by ascending projections from the hypothalamus and brainstem. One of these projections arises from the nucleus incertus in the pontine tegmentum, which contains GABA neurons that co-express the neuropeptide relaxin-3 (Rln3). Both stimulation of the nucleus incertus and septal infusion of Rln3 receptor agonist peptides promotes hippocampal theta rhythm. The Gi/o-protein-coupled receptor, relaxin-family peptide receptor 3 (RXFP3), is the cognate receptor for Rln3 and identification of the transmitter phenotype of neurons expressing RXFP3 in the septohippocampal system can provide further insights into the role of Rln3 transmission in the promotion of septohippocampal theta rhythm. Therefore, we used RNAscope multiplex in situ hybridization to characterize the septal neurons expressing Rxfp3 mRNA in the rat. Our results demonstrate that Rxfp3 mRNA is abundantly expressed in vesicular GABA transporter (vGAT) mRNA- and parvalbumin (PV) mRNA-positive GABA neurons in MS, whereas ChAT mRNA-positive acetylcholine neurons lack Rxfp3 mRNA. Approximately 75% of Rxfp3 mRNA-positive neurons expressed vGAT mRNA (and 22% were PV mRNA-positive), while the remaining 25% expressed Rxfp3 mRNA only, consistent with a potential glutamatergic phenotype. Similar proportions were observed in the posterior septum. The occurrence of RXFP3 in PV-positive GABAergic neurons gives support to a role for the Rln3-RXFP3 system in septohippocampal theta rhythm.

Central relaxin-3 receptor (RXFP3) activation increases ERK phosphorylation in septal cholinergic neurons and impairs spatial working memory.

The medial septum/diagonal band (MS/DB) is a relay region connecting the hypothalamus and brainstem with the hippocampus, and both the MS/DB and dorsal/ventral hippocampus receive strong topographic GABA/peptidergic projections from the nucleus incertus of the pontine tegmentum. The neuropeptide relaxin-3, released by these neurons, is the cognate ligand for a Gi/o-protein-coupled receptor, RXFP3, which is highly expressed within the MS/DB, and both cholinergic and GABAergic neurons in this region of rat brain receive relaxin-3 positive terminals/boutons. Comprehensive in vitro studies have demonstrated that the cell signaling pathways altered by RXFP3 stimulation, include inhibition of forskolin-activated cAMP levels and activation of ERK phosphorylation. In this study we investigated whether intracerebroventricular (icv) injection of RXFP3-A2, a selective relaxin-3 receptor agonist, altered ERK phosphorylation levels in the MS/DB of adult male rats. We subsequently assessed the neurochemical phenotype of phosphorylated (p) ERK-positive neurons in MS/DB after icv RXFP3-A2 administration by dual-label immunostaining for pERK and neuronal markers for cholinergic and GABAergic neurons. Central RXFP3-A2 injection significantly increased levels of pERK immunoreactivity (IR) in MS/DB at 20 and 90 min post-injection, compared to vehicle and naive levels. In addition, RXFP3-A2 increased the number of cells expressing pERK-IR in the MS/DB at 90 (but not 20) min post-injection in cholinergic (but not GABAergic) neurons, which also expressed putative RXFP3-IR. Moreover, icv injection of RXFP3-A2 impaired alternation in a delayed spontaneous T-maze test of spatial working memory. The presence of RXFP3-like IR and the RXFP3-related activation of the MAPK/ERK pathway in MS/DB cholinergic neurons identifies them as a key target of ascending relaxin-3 projections with implications for the acute and chronic modulation of cholinergic neuron activity and function by relaxin-3/RXFP3 signaling.

The effect of abscisic acid chronic treatment on neuroinflammatory markers and memory in a rat model of high-fat diet induced neuroinflammation.

BACKGROUND: Western diet and lifestyle are associated with overweight, obesity, and type 2 diabetes, which, in turn, are correlated with neuroinflammation processes. Exercise and a healthy diet are important in the prevention of these disorders. However, molecules inhibiting neuroinflammation might also be efficacious in the prevention and/or treatment of neurological disorders of inflammatory etiology. The abscisic acid (ABA) is a phytohormone involved in hydric-stress responses. This compound is not only found in plants but also in other organisms, including mammals. In rodents, ABA can play a beneficial role in the regulation of peripheral immune response and insulin action. Thus, we hypothesized that chronic ABA administration might exert a protective effect in a model of neuroinflammation induced by high-fat diet (HFD). METHODS: Male Wistar rats were fed with standard diet or HFD with or without ABA in the drinking water for 12 weeks. Glucose tolerance test and behavioral paradigms were performed to evaluate the peripheral and central effects of treatments. One-Way ANOVA was performed analyzed statistical differences between groups. RESULTS: The HFD induced insulin resistance peripherally and increased the levels of proinflammatory markers in in the brain. We observed that ABA restored glucose tolerance in HFD-fed rats, as expected. In addition, chronic ABA treatment rescued cognitive performance in these animals, while not affecting control diet fed animals. Moreover, it counteracted the changes induced by HFD in the hypothalamus; microglia activations and TNFα mRNA levels. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that ABA might become a new therapeutic molecule improving the neuroinflammatory status and insulin resistance.

Comparative Distribution of Relaxin-3 Inputs and Calcium-Binding Protein-Positive Neurons in Rat Amygdala.

The neural circuits involved in mediating complex behaviors are being rapidly elucidated using various newly developed and powerful anatomical and molecular techniques, providing insights into the neural basis for anxiety disorders, depression, addiction, and dysfunctional social behaviors. Many of these behaviors and associated physiological processes involve the activation of the amygdala in conjunction with cortical and hippocampal circuits. Ascending subcortical projections provide modulatory inputs to the extended amygdala and its related nodes (or "hubs") within these key circuits. One such input arises from the nucleus incertus (NI) in the tegmentum, which sends amino acid- and peptide-containing projections throughout the forebrain. Notably, a distinct population of GABAergic NI neurons expresses the highly-conserved neuropeptide, relaxin-3, and relaxin-3 signaling has been implicated in the modulation of reward/motivation and anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors in rodents via actions within the extended amygdala. Thus, a detailed description of the relaxin-3 innervation of the extended amygdala would provide an anatomical framework for an improved understanding of NI and relaxin-3 modulation of these and other specific amygdala-related functions. Therefore, in this study, we examined the distribution of NI projections and relaxin-3-positive elements (axons/fibers/terminals) within the amygdala, relative to the distribution of neurons expressing the calcium-binding proteins, parvalbumin (PV), calretinin (CR) and/or calbindin. Anterograde tracer injections into the NI revealed a topographic distribution of NI efferents within the amygdala that was near identical to the distribution of relaxin-3-immunoreactive fibers. Highest densities of anterogradely-labeled elements and relaxin-3-immunoreactive fibers were observed in the medial nucleus of the amygdala, medial divisions of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST) and in the endopiriform nucleus. In contrast, sparse anterogradely-labeled and relaxin-3-immunoreactive fibers were observed in other amygdala nuclei, including the lateral, central and basal nuclei, while the nucleus accumbens lacked any innervation. Using synaptophysin as a synaptic marker, we identified relaxin-3 positive synaptic terminals in the medial amygdala, BST and endopiriform nucleus of amygdala. Our findings demonstrate the existence of topographic NI and relaxin-3-containing projections to specific nuclei of the extended amygdala, consistent with a likely role for this putative integrative arousal system in the regulation of amygdala-dependent social and emotional behaviors.

Abscisic Acid: a versatile phytohormone in plant signaling and beyond.

As sessile organisms, plants cannot escape from adverse conditions and, therefore, they have developed complex responses to the changing environment. Plant responses to abiotic cues involve changes in metabolism, photosynthesis, gene expression, ion levels, etc., and must be perfectly coordinated by phytohormones. The abscisic acid (ABA) is the main phytohormone involved in abiotic stress responses although it is nowadays clear that its signaling pathways are not isolated but interconnected with other hormone signals in complex networks. This article revises molecular mechanisms involved in the crosstalks of ABA with other phytohormones in response to different physiological processes. Moreover, ABA is not a molecule exclusive from plants but it can be found in many other organisms including bacteria, algae, fungi, animals, etc. Interestingly, it can be synthesized and secreted by a variety of human cells. These aspects that confer to the ABA a range of ubiquitous molecule will be also revised in this article.

Septal projections to nucleus incertus in the rat: bidirectional pathways for modulation of hippocampal function.

Projections from the nucleus incertus (NI) to the septum have been implicated in the modulation of hippocampal theta rhythm. In this study we describe a previously uncharacterized projection from the septum to the NI, which may provide feedback modulation of the ascending circuitry. Fluorogold injections into the NI resulted in retrograde labeling in the septum that was concentrated in the horizontal diagonal band and areas of the posterior septum including the septofimbrial and triangular septal nuclei. Double-immunofluorescent staining indicated that the majority of NI-projecting septal neurons were calretinin-positive and some were parvalbumin-, calbindin-, or glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)-67-positive. Choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons were Fluorogold-negative. Injection of anterograde tracers into medial septum, or triangular septal and septofimbrial nuclei, revealed fibers descending to the supramammillary nucleus, median raphe, and the NI. These anterogradely labeled varicosities displayed synaptophysin immunoreactivity, indicating septal inputs form synapses on NI neurons. Anterograde tracer also colocalized with GAD-67-positive puncta in labeled fibers, which in some cases made close synaptic contact with GAD-67-labeled NI neurons. These data provide evidence for the existence of an inhibitory descending projection from medial and posterior septum to the NI that provides a "feedback loop" to modulate the comparatively more dense ascending NI projections to medial septum and hippocampus. Neural processes and associated behaviors activated or modulated by changes in hippocampal theta rhythm may depend on reciprocal connections between ascending and descending pathways rather than on unidirectional regulation via the medial septum.

[Effects of methylphenidate on anxiety]. / Efectos del metilfenidato sobre la ansiedad.

The attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity (ADDH) is a widely recognized disorder of unknown etiology. Methylphenidate administration is one of the most commonly used treatments to improve symptoms associated with ADDH. Although it is generally a well tolerated drug, several secondary effects may occur. In particular, this paper will focus on the effects on anxiety, in humans and experimental animal models. It has been shown that acute administration of methylphenidate in adults reduces anxiety, in both animal models and humans. On the other hand, chronic treatment during early ages (postnatal and young subjects) results in higher anxiety in adults. In some cases this effect appears together with higher susceptibility of drug consumption. Thus, we find that, in the literature, methylphenidate is capable of inducing different and opposite effects. Thus, further experiments would be required to elucidate the mechanisms by which methylphenidate exert its actions.

Efectos del metilfenidato sobre la ansiedad / Effects of methylphenidate on anxiety

El trastorno por déficit de atención/hiperactividad (TDAH) es un trastorno neurológico ampliamente reconocido de etiología desconocida. La administración de metilfenidato es uno de los tratamientos más utilizados para la mejora sintomática del TDAH. Aunque es un medicamento en general muy bien tolerado por los pacientes, existen algunos efectos secundarios ajenos a los síntomas de la hiperactividad. En particular, esta revisión se centra en revisar los efectos que la administración aguda o crónica del metilfenidato induce en síntomas de ansiedad en humanos y en modelos animales experimentales. Tanto en modelos animales como en humanos, la administración aguda en adultos tiene un efecto ansiolítico. Por otro lado, en modelos animales, la administración crónica en el período posnatal y adolescentes genera estados de ansiedad en el adulto, aumentando, además, en algunos casos, aunque no en todos, la propensión a la drogodependencia de otras sustancias. Existe disparidad de resultados y serían necesarios más estudios para elucidar los mecanismos por los cuales el metilfenidato ejerce su acción (AU)

The attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity (ADDH) is a widely recognized disorder of unknown etiology. Methylphenidate administration is one of the most commonly used treatments to improve symptoms associated with ADDH. Although it is generally a well tolerated drug, several secondary effects may occur. In particular, this paper will focus on the effects on anxiety, in humans and experimental animal models. It has been shown that acute administration of methylphenidate in adults reduces anxiety, in both animal models and humans. On the other hand, chronic treatment during early ages (postnatal and young subjects) results in higher anxiety in adults. In some cases this effect appears together with higher susceptibility of drug consumption. Thus, we find that, in the literature, methylphenidate is capable of inducing different and opposite effects. Thus, further experiments would be required to elucidate the mechanisms by which methylphenidate exert its actions (AU)

Distribution and targets of the relaxin-3 innervation of the septal area in the rat.

Neural tracing studies have revealed that the rat medial and lateral septum are targeted by ascending projections from the nucleus incertus, a population of tegmental GABA neurons. These neurons express the relaxin-family peptide, relaxin-3, and pharmacological modulation of relaxin-3 receptors in medial septum alters hippocampal theta rhythm and spatial memory. In an effort to better understand the basis of these interactions, we have characterized the distribution of relaxin-3 fibers/terminals in relation to different septal neuron populations identified using established protein markers. Dense relaxin-3 fiber plexuses were observed in regions of medial septum containing hippocampal-projecting choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-, neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS)-, and parvalbumin (PV)-positive neurons. In lateral septum (LS), relaxin-3 fibers were concentrated in the ventrolateral nucleus of rostral LS and the ventral nucleus of caudal LS, with sparse labeling in the dorsolateral and medial nuclei of rostral LS, dorsal nucleus of caudal LS, and ventral portion nuclei. Relaxin-3 fibers were also observed in the septofimbrial and triangular septal nuclei. In the medial septum, we observed relaxin-3-immunoreactive contacts with ChAT-, PV-, and glutamate decarboxylase-67-positive neurons that projected to hippocampus, and contacts between relaxin-3 terminals and calbindin- and calretinin-positive neurons. Relaxin-3 colocalized with synaptophysin in nerve terminals in all septal areas, and ultrastructural analysis revealed these terminals were symmetrical and contacted spines, somata, dendritic shafts, and occasionally other axonal terminals. These data predict that this GABA/peptidergic projection modulates septohippocampal activity and hippocampal theta rhythm related to exploratory navigation, defensive and ingestive behaviors, and responses to neurogenic stressors.

Serines 890 and 896 of the NMDA receptor subunit NR1 are differentially phosphorylated by protein kinase C isoforms.

The NR1 subunit of the NMDA receptor has two serines (S890 and S896) whose phosphorylation by protein kinase C (PKC) differentially modulates NMDA receptor trafficking and clustering. It is not known which PKC isoforms phosphorylate these serines. In primary cultures of cerebellar neurons, we examined which PKC isoforms are responsible for the phosphorylation S890 and S896. We used specific inhibitors of PKC isoforms and antibodies recognizing specifically phosphorylated S890 or S896. The results show that PKC alpha phosphorylates preferentially S896 and PKC gamma preferentially S890. Activation of type I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) with DHPG (3,5-dihyidroxy-phenylglycine) activates PKC gamma but not PKC alpha or beta. We found that activation of mGluRs by DHPG increases S890 but not S896 phosphorylation, supporting a role for PKC gamma in the physiological modulation of S890 phosphorylation. It is also shown that the pool of NR1 subunits present in the membrane surface contains phosphorylated S890 but not phosphorylated S896. This supports that differential phosphorylation of S890 and S896 by different PKC isoforms modulates cellular distribution of NMDA receptors and may also contribute to the selective modulation of NMDA receptor function and intracellular localization.

Chronic exposure to ammonia induces isoform-selective alterations in the intracellular distribution and NMDA receptor-mediated translocation of protein kinase C in cerebellar neurons in culture.

Hyperammonemia is responsible for most neurological alterations in patients with hepatic encephalopathy by mechanisms that remain unclear. Hyperammonemia alters phosphorylation of neuronal protein kinase C (PKC) substrates and impairs NMDA receptor-associated signal transduction. The aim of this work was to analyse the effects of hyperammonemia on the amount and intracellular distribution of PKC isoforms and on translocation of each isoform induced by NMDA receptor activation in cerebellar neurons. Chronic hyperammonemia alters differentially the intracellular distribution of PKC isoforms. The amount of all isoforms (except PKC zeta) was reduced (17-50%) in the particulate fraction. The contents of alpha, beta1, and epsilon isoforms decreased similarly in cytosol (65-78%) and membranes (66-83%), whereas gamma, delta, and theta; isoforms increased in cytosol but decreased in membranes, and zeta isoform increased in membranes and decreased in cytosol. Chronic hyperammonemia also affects differentially NMDA-induced translocation of PKC isoforms. NMDA-induced translocation of PKC alpha and beta is prevented by ammonia, whereas PKC gamma, delta, epsilon, or theta; translocation is not affected. Inhibition of phospholipase C did not affect PKC alpha translocation but reduced significantly PKC gamma translocation, indicating that NMDA-induced translocation of PKC alpha is mediated by Ca2+, whereas PKC gamma translocation is mediated by diacylglycerol. Chronic hyperammonemia reduces Ca+2-mediated but not diacylglycerol-mediated translocation of PKC isoforms induced by NMDA.

Modulation of NMDA receptor function by cyclic AMP in cerebellar neurones in culture.

The signal transduction pathways involved in NMDA receptor modulation by other receptors remain unclear. cAMP could be involved in this modulation. The aim of this work was to analyse the contribution of cAMP to NMDA receptor modulation in cerebellar neurones in culture. Forskolin increases cAMP and results in increased intracellular calcium and cGMP that are prevented by blocking NMDA receptors. Similar effects were induced by two cAMP analogues, indicating that cAMP leads to NMDA receptor activation. It has been reported that phosphorylation of Ser897 of the NR1 subunit of NMDA receptors by cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) activates the receptors. Forskolin increases Ser897 phosphorylation. Neither Ser897 phosphorylation nor cGMP increase induced by forskolin are prevented by four inhibitors of PKA, suggesting that NMDA receptor activation is dependent on cAMP but not on PKA. Inhibition of Akt prevents forskolin-induced phosphorylation of Ser897, suggesting a role for Akt in the mediation of the modulation of NMDA receptors by cAMP. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) activates its receptors, increasing cAMP and also leading to phosphorylation of Ser897 of NR1 and activation of NMDA receptors. These results indicate that cAMP modulates NMDA receptor in cerebellar neurones and may play a role in NMDA receptor modulation by other receptors.

Trialkylglycines: a new family of compounds with in vivo neuroprotective activity.

Glutamate neurotoxicity is involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington's, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. It plays also a major role in the neuronal damage that occurs in brain ischemia and head trauma. Finding molecules that prevent or reverse glutamate neurotoxicity (excitotoxicity) is, therefore, of great interest. Strategies aimed at this end include the screening of libraries of compounds synthesized by combinatorial chemistry to find molecules that prevent neuronal death in vitro and in vivo. A library of trialkylglycines was screened to assess whether they prevent glutamate-induced neuronal death in primary cultures of cerebellar neurons. Two types of trialkylglycines have been found that significantly reduce the incidence of glutamate-induced neuronal death. The first type includes two compounds (referred to as 6-1-2 and 6-1-10) that efficiently prevent glutamate or NMDA-induced neuronal death. They also prevent excitotoxicity in vivo as assessed by using two animal models of excitotoxicity: acute intoxication with ammonia and a model of cerebral ischemia in rats. Trialkylglycines 6-1-2 and 6-1-10 prevent ammonia-induced (NMDA receptor-mediated) death of mice and neuronal degeneration in the model of cerebral ischemia. The trialkylglycines of the second type act as open channel blockers of the NMDA receptor. The first group of trialkylglycines does not block NMDA receptor channels and does not affect the glutamate-nitric oxide-cGMP pathway. Their molecular target has not yet been identified. These two types of trialkylglycines (especially those that do not affect NMDA receptor function) might represent effective drugs for the treatment of neurodegeneration. They are likely to be well tolerated and have fewer side effects than NMDA receptor antagonists.

Glutamine synthetase activity and glutamine content in brain: modulation by NMDA receptors and nitric oxide.

Acute intoxication with large doses of ammonia leads to rapid death. The main mechanism for ammonia elimination in brain is its reaction with glutamate to form glutamine. This reaction is catalyzed by glutamine synthetase and consumes ATP. In the course of studies on the molecular mechanism of acute ammonia toxicity, we have found that glutamine synthetase activity and glutamine content in brain are modulated by NMDA receptors and nitric oxide. The main findings can be summarized as follows. Blocking NMDA receptors prevents ammonia-induced depletion of brain ATP and death of rats but not the increase in brain glutamine, indicating that ammonia toxicity is not due to increased activity of glutamine synthetase or formation of glutamine but to excessive activation of NMDA receptors. Blocking NMDA receptors in vivo increases glutamine synthetase activity and glutamine content in brain, indicating that tonic activation of NMDA receptors maintains a tonic inhibition of glutamine synthetase. Blocking NMDA receptors in vivo increases the activity of glutamine synthetase assayed in vitro, indicating that increased activity is due to a covalent modification of the enzyme. Nitric oxide inhibits glutamine synthetase, indicating that the covalent modification that inhibits glutamine synthetase is a nitrosylation or a nitration.Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase increases the activity of glutamine synthetase, indicating that the covalent modification is reversible and it must be an enzyme that denitrosylate or denitrate glutamine synthetase.NMDA mediated activation of nitric oxide synthase is responsible only for part of the tonic inhibition of glutamine synthetase. Other sources of nitric oxide are also contributing to this tonic inhibition. Glutamine synthetase is not working at maximum rate in brain and its activity may be increased pharmacologically by manipulating NMDA receptors or nitric oxide content. This may be useful, for example, to increase ammonia detoxification in brain in hyperammonemic situations.