Cerebral damage in epilepsy: a population-based longitudinal quantitative MRI study.

PURPOSE: Whether cerebral damage results from epileptic seizures remains a contentious issue. We report on the first longitudinal community-based quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study to investigate the effect of seizures on the hippocampus, cerebellum, and neocortex. METHODS: One hundred seventy-nine patients with epilepsy (66 temporal lobe epilepsy, 51 extratemporal partial epilepsy, and 62 generalized epilepsy) and 90 control subjects underwent two MRI brain scans 3.5 years apart. Automated and manual measurement techniques identified changes in global and regional brain volumes and hippocampal T2 relaxation times. RESULTS: Baseline hippocampal volumes were significantly reduced in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy and could be attributed to an antecedent neurologic insult. Rates of hippocampal, cerebral, and cerebellar atrophy were not syndrome specific and were similar in control and patient groups. Global and regional brain atrophy was determined primarily by age. A prior neurologic insult was associated with reduced hippocampal and cerebellar volumes and an increased rate of cerebellar atrophy. Significant atrophy of the hippocampus, neocortex, or cerebellum occurred in 17% of patients compared with 6.7% of control subjects. Patients with and without significant volume reduction were comparable in terms of seizure frequency, antiepileptic drug (AED) use, and epilepsy duration, with no identifiable risk factors for the development of atrophy. CONCLUSIONS: Overt structural cerebral damage is not an inevitable consequence of epileptic seizures. In general, brain volume reduction in epilepsy is the cumulative effect of an initial precipitating injury and age-related cerebral atrophy. Significant atrophy developed in individual patients, particularly those with temporal lobe and generalized epilepsy. Longer periods of observation may detect more subtle effects of seizures.

Cause-specific mortality in epilepsy.

Epilepsy is associated with a two- to three-fold increase in mortality. Studies of cause-specific mortality show that deaths may be classified into those that are directly or indirectly related to epilepsy, those that are related to the underlying pathology giving rise to epilepsy, and those that are unrelated to both epilepsy and its causes. Overall, direct epilepsy related deaths are infrequent. Pneumonia, especially in the elderly, central nervous system (CNS) and non-CNS neoplasias, and cerebrovascular disease are frequent causes of death. Suicides, accidental deaths, and ischemic heart disease do not appear to be significant contributors to mortality in community-based studies. In hospital/institution-based analyses, epilepsy-related deaths are common and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) may account for up to 17% of all deaths in epilepsy. A small proportion of these deaths may be witnessed and most such witnessed deaths occur in relation to convulsive seizures. The exact pathogenetic mechanisms are unknown although it is very probable that lack of seizure control is an important risk factor. Patients who continue to suffer seizures appear to have an almost 40 times higher risk of mortality than those in remission.

Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: a review of incidence and risk factors.

Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) is the most important direct epilepsy-related cause of death. However, SUDEP is rare in patients with new onset epilepsy and in patients in remission. Incidence is about 0.35 cases/1,000 person-years in population-based incidence cohort of epilepsy. Incidence is considerably higher in patients with chronic epilepsy, 1-2/1,000 person-years, and highest with severe, refractory seizures, 3-9/1,000. The highest rates occur from 20 to 40 years. Most SUDEP appears seizure-related. When witnessed, the fatal event generally occurred in association with generalized tonic-clonic seizure. Two recent case-control studies suggest that seizure frequency is the strongest risk factor for SUDEP: relative risk = 23 (95% CI = 3.2-170) for persons with > or =1 seizure during the year of observation versus seizure-free patients. Onset of epilepsy at an early age and long duration of the disorder are other risk factors. Although SUDEP has not been associated with the use of any particular antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), some case-control studies have pointed to an association between SUDEP and polytherapy with AEDs and frequent dose changes independent of seizure frequency. Although recent epidemiological studies have been helpful in identifying patients at risk for SUDEP, providing clues to mechanisms behind SUDEP, no single risk factor is common to all SUDEP, suggesting multiple mechanisms or trigger factors. Seizure control seems of paramount importance to prevent SUDEP. Further large-scale case-control studies are needed to assess the role of AEDs in order to form a basis for treatment strategies aiming at seizure control and prevention of SUDEP.

Psychiatric adverse events in patients with epilepsy and learning disabilities taking levetiracetam.

PURPOSE: To investigate the prevalence and psychopathological features of psychiatric adverse events (PAEs) in patients with learning disabilities (LD) in therapy with levetiracetam (LEV). METHOD: From a population of 517 consecutively patients with epilepsy started on LEV, we identified 118 patients with epilepsy and LD. RESULTS: Fifteen patients (12.7%) experienced PAEs during LEV therapy. Two (1.7%) developed an affective disorder, nine (7.6%) aggressive behaviour, two (1.7%) emotion lability and two (1.7%) other personality changes such as agitation, anger and hostile behaviour. We observed a significant association with a previous history of status epilepticus and a previous psychiatric history. We did not find a statistically significant association with epilepsy diagnosis, age at onset or duration of the epilepsy, EEG or MRI features. The titration schedule of LEV appeared not to be relevant. CONCLUSIONS: LEV therapy was well tolerated in patients with epilepsy and LD and the main problems were related to aggressive behaviour. The titration schedule of LEV was not relevant and a subgroup of patients appeared to be biologically more vulnerable.

The role of hippocampal sclerosis in topiramate-related depression and cognitive deficits in people with epilepsy.

PURPOSE: To clarify the role of hippocampal sclerosis (HS) in developing psychiatric and cognitive adverse events during therapy with topiramate (TPM) in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). METHODS: We analyzed the data of 70 patients with TLE and HS and 128 patients with cryptogenic TLE matched for age, sex, starting dose, and titration schedule of TPM. They were selected from the first consecutive 431 patients started on TPM between 1995 and 1999. RESULTS: Patients with HS were more likely to develop cognitive adverse events (CAEs; p = 0.002) and depression (p = 0.018) and to be receiving a polytherapy regimen (p = 0.007). However, regression analysis demonstrated that only HS was a predictive factor for the occurrence of CAEs (OR = 2.4; p < 0.001) and depression (OR = 2.3; p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with TLE and HS were more prone to develop CAEs and depression than were patients with cryptogenic TLE, during TPM therapy, despite the same titration schedule. The presence of HS and not duration of epilepsy or polytherapy regimen represented the main risk factor.

Topiramate and psychiatric adverse events in patients with epilepsy.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of psychiatric adverse events (PAEs) in patients with epilepsy treated with topiramate (TPM). Classification, relation to TPM dosing, and outcome were evaluated to identify a patient profile at risk of developing PAEs. METHODS: We evaluated the data of the first consecutive and prospectively collected patients in therapy with TPM. RESULTS: Follow-up information was available for 431 patients. PAEs occurred in 103 (23.9%) patients; M/F ratio, 55:48; mean age (+/-SD), 36.5 +/- 11.2. In 46 (10.7%) patients, an affective disorder developed; in 16 (3.7%), a psychotic disorder; in 24 (5.6%), aggressive behavior with or without irritability; in 17 (3.9%), other behavior abnormalities such as agitated behavior, anger/hostility behavior, or anxiety. High starting dose and rapid titration schedule were relevant for the development of PAEs. Family psychiatric history and family history of epilepsy, personal history of febrile convulsions, psychiatric history, and presence of tonic-atonic seizures were found to be significant risk factors. Low seizure frequency before starting TPM and TPM/lamotrigine coadministration had a protective effect for PAEs. CONCLUSIONS: We found that PAEs associated with TPM were related to the titration schedule of the drug and that a unique patient profile is suggested by the clinical history.

Topiramate and word-finding difficulties in patients with epilepsy.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the prevalence of word-finding difficulties as a treatment-emergent adverse event in patients with epilepsy taking topiramate and to identify a clinical phenotype at risk. METHODS: The authors investigated the relationship of word-finding difficulties to topiramate titration schedule, seizure frequency and pattern, and EEG and neuroradiologic findings in 431 consecutively and prospectively collected patients taking topiramate. RESULTS: Thirty-one patients (7.2%) developed word-finding difficulties. Presence of simple partial seizures (OR = 6.7 p = 0.007) and a left temporal EEG epileptic focus (OR = 5.2 p = 0.021) were significantly associated with word-finding difficulties. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of word-finding difficulties seems to be a titration schedule independent phenomenon that occurs in a subgroup of patients with a specific biologic vulnerability.

Progressive neocortical damage in epilepsy.

Our objective was to determine the pattern and extent of generalized and focal neocortical atrophy that develops in patients with epilepsy and the factors associated with such changes. As part of a prospective, longitudinal follow-up study of 122 patients with chronic epilepsy, 68 newly diagnosed patients, and 90 controls, serial magnetic resonance imaging scans were obtained 3.5 years apart. Image subtraction was used to identify diffuse and focal neocortical change that was quantified with a regional brain atlas and a fully automated segmentation algorithm. New focal or generalized neocortical volume losses were identified in 54% of patients with chronic epilepsy, 39% of newly diagnosed patients and 24% of controls. Patients with chronic epilepsy were significantly more likely to develop neocortical atrophy than control subjects. The increased risk of cerebral atrophy in epilepsy was not related to a history of documented seizures. Risk factors for neocortical atrophy were age and multiple antiepileptic drug exposure. Focal and generalized neocortical atrophy commonly develops in chronic epilepsy. Neocortical changes seen in a quarter of our control group over 3.5 years were likely to reflect physiological changes. Our results show that ongoing cerebral atrophy may be widespread and remote from the putative epileptic focus, possibly reflecting extensive networks and interconnections between cortical regions.

Talampanel, a new antiepileptic drug: single- and multiple-dose pharmacokinetics and initial 1-week experience in patients with chronic intractable epilepsy.

PURPOSE: Talampanel (LY300164), a potent and selective alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate (AMPA)-receptor antagonist, is a potential new antiepileptic drug (AED). This study examines the single- and multiple-dose pharmacokinetics, safety, and tolerability of talampanel in patients with intractable epilepsy and assesses the potential for pharmacokinetic interaction. METHODS: Eleven of 14 patients entered into the study completed. Fourteen patients were evaluated for safety, 13 patients were used in the single-dose, and 11 patients in the multiple-dose pharmacokinetic analysis. Each patient initially received a single 35-mg dose of talampanel followed by the measurement of pharmacokinetic profiles. A 21-day t.i.d. dosing regimen was then determined for each patient based on his or her initial pharmacokinetic profile. Adverse events were recorded by patients or their carers. RESULTS: After oral ingestion, talampanel was rapidly absorbed, with maximal plasma concentrations achieved within 1-3 h. Talampanel concentrations in patients taking enzyme-inducing AEDs were 50% lower than those seen in healthy volunteers. Mean talampanel t1/2 values were 3.0 h compared with 4.2 h in healthy volunteers. After multiple-dose and steady-state, talampanel t1/2 values were increased to 5.6 h Talampanel and valproic acid (VPA) appear to inhibit each other's metabolism mutually. Talampanel had no effect on plasma concentrations of other AEDs. Multiple-dose talampanel administration was associated with nonlinear pharmacokinetics. No serious adverse events were reported; the most frequently reported being dizziness, ataxia, drowsiness, and headaches CONCLUSIONS: Talampanel dosing strategies may be reliant on concomitant AED medication, as enzyme-inducing AEDs enhance, whereas VPA inhibits its metabolism. Talampanel was well tolerated, although adverse events occurred at lower doses compared with those in healthy subjects, probably because of the additive effect of concomitant AEDs.

Evidence for sustained efficacy of levetiracetam as add-on epilepsy therapy.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the long-term clinical usefulness of levetiracetam (LEV, Keppra((R))(1)) as add-on therapy in patients with refractory epilepsy. METHODS: Data for all 1422 patients with refractory epilepsy treated with LEV during the development program were analyzed for changes in seizure frequency per week, seizure freedom, and adverse events. RESULTS: Median percent reduction from baseline in seizure frequency per week over the whole treatment period was 39.6%, and no decrease over time was observed within each cohort exposed to LEV for durations ranging from 6 to 54 months. The median treatment period was 399 days (range 1-8 years). The proportion of responders during the first 3 months of LEV treatment was 39.2%. This proportion remained stable at 6 months (36.1%). Overall, 38.6 and 20.1% of patients had reductions in seizure frequency of at least 50 and 75%. Sixty-five (4.6%) patients were seizure-free over their entire treatment period, compared with 167 (11.7%) and 126 (8.9%) during their last 6 and 12 months of follow-up. Ninety-seven (19.8%) of 491 patients who received only one other antiepileptic drug (AED) in addition to LEV were seizure-free during their last 6 months. The proportion of patients who reduced their number of concomitant AEDs was 14.4% (205 patients), while 5.5% (79 patients) were treated with LEV only at the end of follow-up. Accidental injury (28.0%), infection (26.6%), headache (25.8%), somnolence (23%), asthenia (22.6%), and dizziness (18.9%) were among the most common adverse events. CONCLUSION: LEV offers sustained efficacy in patients with refractory partial seizures, and its long-term tolerability is similar to that seen in the short-term placebo-controlled trials.

The structural consequences of newly diagnosed seizures.

Intractable epilepsy may be associated with widespread structural cerebral damage. We determined whether structural damage occurs to the hippocampus, cerebellum and neocortex in the first few years following a diagnosis of seizures. Sixty-eight patients over the age of 14 years with newly diagnosed seizures and 90 matched controls underwent serial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scans 3.5 years apart. Using quantitative analysis of serial scans, we determined changes in hippocampal volume, hippocampal T2 relaxometry and total and regional brain volumes. Thirty-four (50%) patients had recurrent unprovoked seizures between baseline and follow-up scans. One patient with pre-existing hippocampal sclerosis (HS) did not develop progressive hippocampal damage. Group analyses found no difference in change in cerebral measures between patients and controls or between patients with and without recurrent seizures. Significant quantitative changes in individuals were largely attributable to pre-existing cerebral lesions or alcohol abuse. Subtle changes detected in individuals over 3.5 years but were not related to a history of overt seizures. Our results show patients with newly diagnosed seizures are not generally at increased risk of seizure-induced structural cerebral damage as detected with MRI. Cerebral damage may occur before the onset of seizures or develop insidiously over a more prolonged period.

Sulthiame in adults with refractory epilepsy and learning disability: an open trial.

This prospective uncontrolled open study explored the efficacy and long-term tolerability of sulthiame (STM) in 52 patients with refractory epilepsy and learning disability. Thirty-six patients completed a 14-weeks trial period with STM and 22 patients achieved a seizure reduction>50% of which three became seizure-free. Twenty-six patients continued taking STM for now up to 120 weeks, one continued to be seizure-free, whilst five patients stopped STM during this period. These promising observations require further evaluation in a controlled trial.

Carbamazepine toxicity during combination therapy with levetiracetam: a pharmacodynamic interaction.

Levetiracetam is a novel antiepileptic drug with an unknown mechanism of action. To-date levetiracetam is not known to be associated with any clinically significant pharmacokinetic interaction. Similarly, levetiracetam has not been associated with any pharmacodynamic interactions. We present four patients with severe refractory epilepsy in whom introduction of levetiracetam led to disabling symptoms compatible with carbamazepine toxicity requiring either carbamazepine dose reduction or levetiracetam withdrawal. As carbamazepine and carbamazepine-epoxide blood levels were not altered during levetiracetam co-medication, a pharmacodynamic interaction is suggested. Therefore, during levetiracetam co-medication with carbamazepine, patients should be monitored closely for symptoms of carbamazepine toxicity.

Papel das drogas antiepilépticas no prognóstico das epilepsias / The effect of antiepileptic drugs on the prognosis of epilepsy

Questöes relacionadas ao prognóstico das epilepsias e ao papel das drogas antiepilépticas (DAEs) continuam sendo tema de calorosas discussöes. Estudos populacionais recentes sugerem que uma boa parcela dos pacientes com epilepsia podem apresentar remissäo espontânea, um fato que é contrário à concepçäo da evoluçäo inexorável da epilepsia, caso o paciente näo recebesse tratamento precoce com DAEs. O uso de DAEs a curto prazo pode diminuir a morbidade e a mortalidade associadas a epilepsia, porém o seu papel a longo prazo permanece incerto. Pode parecer paradoxal a necessidade de desenvolvimento de novos fármacos, se o seu papel ainda näo está inteiramente esclarecido em pacientes com epilepsia recém diagnosticada. Entretanto, devido à toxicidade das DAEs atuais, e principalmente para os pacientes rotulados de "farmaco-resistentes", esta parece ser uma das poucas esperanças no controle das crises