DPP8 and DPP9 inhibition induces pro-caspase-1-dependent monocyte and macrophage pyroptosis.

Val-boroPro (Talabostat, PT-100), a nonselective inhibitor of post-proline cleaving serine proteases, stimulates mammalian immune systems through an unknown mechanism of action. Despite this lack of mechanistic understanding, Val-boroPro has attracted substantial interest as a potential anticancer agent, reaching phase 3 trials in humans. Here we show that Val-boroPro stimulates the immune system by triggering a proinflammatory form of cell death in monocytes and macrophages known as pyroptosis. We demonstrate that the inhibition of two serine proteases, DPP8 and DPP9, activates the pro-protein form of caspase-1 independent of the inflammasome adaptor ASC. Activated pro-caspase-1 does not efficiently process itself or IL-1ß but does cleave and activate gasdermin D to induce pyroptosis. Mice lacking caspase-1 do not show immune stimulation after treatment with Val-boroPro. Our data identify what is to our knowledge the first small molecule that induces pyroptosis and reveals a new checkpoint that controls the activation of the innate immune system.

A high-throughput, multiplexed assay for superfamily-wide profiling of enzyme activity.

The selectivity of an enzyme inhibitor is a key determinant of its usefulness as a tool compound or its safety as a drug. Yet selectivity is never assessed comprehensively in the early stages of the drug discovery process, and only rarely in the later stages, because technical limitations prohibit doing otherwise. Here, we report EnPlex, an efficient, high-throughput method for simultaneously assessing inhibitor potency and specificity, and pilot its application to 96 serine hydrolases. EnPlex analysis of widely used serine hydrolase inhibitors revealed numerous previously unrecognized off-target interactions, some of which may help to explain previously confounding adverse effects. In addition, EnPlex screening of a hydrolase-directed library of boronic acid- and nitrile-containing compounds provided structure-activity relationships in both potency and selectivity dimensions from which lead candidates could be more effectively prioritized. Follow-up of a series of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors showed that EnPlex indeed predicted efficacy and safety in animal models. These results demonstrate the feasibility and value of high-throughput, superfamily-wide selectivity profiling and suggest that such profiling can be incorporated into the earliest stages of drug discovery.

A general method for making peptide therapeutics resistant to serine protease degradation: application to dipeptidyl peptidase IV substrates.

Bioactive peptides have evolved to optimally fulfill specific biological functions, a fact which has long attracted attention for their use as therapeutic agents. While there have been some recent commercial successes fostered in part by advances in large-scale peptide synthesis, development of peptides as therapeutic agents has been significantly impeded by their inherent susceptibility to protease degradation in the bloodstream. Here we report that incorporation of specially designed amino acid analogues at the P1' position, directly C-terminal of the enzyme cleavage site, renders peptides, including glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36) amide (GLP-1) and six other examples, highly resistant to serine protease degradation without significant alteration of their biological activity. We demonstrate the applicability of the method to a variety of proteases, including dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV), dipeptidyl peptidase 8 (DPP8), fibroblast activation protein α (FAPα), α-lytic protease (αLP), trypsin, and chymotrypsin. In summary, the "P1' modification" represents a simple, general, and highly adaptable method of generating enzymatically stable peptide-based therapeutics.

Identification of selective and potent inhibitors of fibroblast activation protein and prolyl oligopeptidase.

Fibroblast activation protein (FAP) is a serine protease selectively expressed on reactive stromal fibroblasts of epithelial carcinomas. It is widely believed to play a role in tumor invasion and metastasis and therefore to represent a potential new drug target for cancer. Investigation into its biological function, however, has been hampered by the current unavailability of selective inhibitors. The challenge has been in identifying inhibitors that are selective for FAP over both the dipeptidyl peptidases (DPPs), with which it shares exopeptidase specificity, and prolyl oligopeptidase (PREP), with which it shares endopeptidase specificity. Here, we report the first potent FAP inhibitor with selectivity over both the DPPs and PREP, N-(pyridine-4-carbonyl)-d-Ala-boroPro (ARI-3099, 6). We also report a similarly potent and selective PREP inhibitor, N-(pyridine-3-carbonyl)-Val-boroPro (ARI-3531, 22). Both are boronic acid based inhibitors, demonstrating that high selectivity can be achieved using this electrophile. The inhibitors are stable, easy to synthesize, and should prove to be useful in helping to elucidate the biological functions of these two unique and interesting enzymes, as well as their potential as drug targets.

4-Substituted boro-proline dipeptides: synthesis, characterization, and dipeptidyl peptidase IV, 8, and 9 activities.

The boroProline-based dipeptidyl boronic acids were among the first DPP-IV inhibitors identified, and remain the most potent known. We introduced various substitutions at the 4-position of the boroProline ring regioselectively and stereoselectively, and incorporated these aminoboronic acids into a series of 4-substituted boroPro-based dipeptides. Among these dipeptidyl boronic acids, Arg-(4S)-boroHyp (4q) was the most potent inhibitor of DPP-IV, DPP8 and DPP9, while (4S)-Hyp-(4R)-boroHyp (4o) exhibited the most selectivity for DPP-IV over DPP8 and DPP9.

Chemical and biological evaluation of dipeptidyl boronic acid proteasome inhibitors for use in prodrugs and pro-soft drugs targeting solid tumors.

Bortezomib, a dipeptidyl boronic acid and potent inhibitor of the 26S proteasome, is remarkably effective against multiple myeloma (MM) but not against solid tumors. Dose-limiting adverse effects from "on target" inhibition of the proteasome in normal cells and tissues appear to be a key obstacle. Achieving efficacy against solid tumors therefore is likely to require making the inhibitor more selective for tumor tissue over normal tissues. The simplest strategy that might provide such tissue specificity would be to employ a tumor specific protease to release an inhibitor from a larger, noninhibitory structure. However, such release would necessarily generate an inhibitor with a free N-terminal amino group, raising a key question: Can short peptide boronic acids with N-terminal amino groups have the requisite properties to serve as warheads in prodrugs? Here we show that dipeptides of boroLeu, the smallest plausible candidates for the task, can indeed be sufficiently potent, cell-penetrating, cytotoxic, and stable to degradation by cellular peptidases to serve in this capacity.

Pro-soft Val-boroPro: a strategy for enhancing in vivo performance of boronic acid inhibitors of serine proteases.

Val-boroPro, 1, is a potent, but relatively nonspecific inhibitor of the prolyl peptidases. It has antihyperglycemic activity from inhibition of DPPIV but also striking anticancer activity and a toxicity for which the mechanisms are unknown. 1 cyclizes at physiological pH, which attenuates its inhibitory potency >100-fold, which is a "soft drug" effect. Here we show that this phenomenon can be exploited to create prodrugs with unique properties and potential for selective in vivo targeting. Enzyme-mediated release delivers 1 to the target in the active form at physiological pH; cyclization attenuates systemic pharmacological effects from subsequent diffusion. This "pro-soft" design is demonstrated with a construct activated by and targeted to DPPIV, including in vivo results showing improved antihyperglycemic activity and reduced toxicity relative to 1. Pro-soft derivatives of 1 can help to illuminate the mechanisms underlying the three biological activities, or to help localize 1 at a tumor and thereby lead to improved anticancer agents with reduced toxicity. The design concept can also be applied to a variety of other boronic acid inhibitors.

Dipeptide boronic acid inhibitors of dipeptidyl peptidase IV: determinants of potency and in vivo efficacy and safety.

Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV; E.C. 3.4.14.5), a serine protease that degrades the incretin hormones GLP-1 and GIP, is now a validated target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Dipeptide boronic acids, among the first, and still among the most potent DPP-IV inhibitors known, suffer from a concern over their safety. Here we evaluate the potency, in vivo efficacy, and safety of a selected set of these inhibitors. The adverse effects induced by boronic acid-based DPP-IV inhibitors are essentially limited to what has been observed previously for non-boronic acid inhibitors and attributed to cross-reactivity with DPP8/9. While consistent with the DPP8/9 hypothesis, they are also consistent with cross-reactivity with some other intracellular target. The results further show that the potency of simple dipeptide boronic acid-based inhibitors can be combined with selectivity against DPP8/9 in vivo to produce agents with a relatively wide therapeutic index (>500) in rodents.

Synthesis and characterization of constrained peptidomimetic dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitors: amino-lactam boroalanines.

We describe here the epimerization-free synthesis and characterization of a new class of conformationally constrained lactam aminoboronic acid inhibitors of dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV; E.C. 3.4.14.5). These compounds have the advantage that they cannot undergo the pH-dependent cyclization prevalent in most dipeptidyl boronic acids that attenuates their potency at physiological pH. For example, D-3-amino-1-[L-1-boronic-ethyl]-pyrrolidine-2-one (amino-D-lactam-L-boroAla), one of the best lactam inhibitors of DPP IV, is several orders of magnitude less potent than L-Ala-L-boroPro, as measured by Ki values (2.3 nM vs 30 pM, respectively). At physiological pH, however, it is actually more potent than L-Ala-L-boroPro, as measured by IC50 values (4.2 nM vs 1400 nM), owing to the absence of the potency-attenuating cyclization. In an interesting and at first sight surprising reversal of the relationship between stereochemistry and potency observed with the conformationally unrestrained Xaa-boroPro class of inhibitors, the L-L diastereomers of the lactams are orders of magnitude less effective than the D-L lactams. However, this interesting reversal and the unexpected potency of the D-L lactams as DPP IV inhibitors can be understood in structural terms, which is explained and discussed here.

T antigen origin-binding domain of simian virus 40: determinants of specific DNA binding.

To better understand origin recognition and initiation of DNA replication, we have examined by NMR complexes formed between the origin-binding domain of SV40 T antigen (T-ag-obd), the initiator protein of the SV40 virus, and cognate and noncognate DNA oligomers. The results reveal two structural effects associated with "origin-specific" binding that are absent in nonspecific DNA binding. The first is the formation of a hydrogen bond (H-bond) involving His 203, a residue that genetic studies have previously identified as crucial to both specific and nonspecific DNA binding in full-length T antigen. In free T-ag-obd, the side chain of His 203 has a pK(a) value of approximately 5, titrating to the N(epsilon)(1)H tautomer at neutral pH (Sudmeier, J. L., et al. (1996) J. Magn. Reson., Ser. B 113, 236-247). In complexes with origin DNA, His 203 N(delta)(1) becomes protonated and remains nontitrating as the imidazolium cation at all pH values from 4 to 8. The H-bonded N(delta1)H resonates at 15.9 ppm, an unusually large N-H proton chemical shift, of a magnitude previously observed only in the catalytic triad of serine proteases at low pH. The formation of this H-bond requires the middle G/C base pair of the recognition pentanucleotide, GAGGC. The second structural effect is a selective distortion of the A/T base pair characterized by a large (0.6 ppm) upfield chemical-shift change of its Watson-Crick proton, while nearby H-bonded protons remain relatively unaffected. The results indicate that T antigen, like many other DNA-binding proteins, may employ "catalytic" or "transition-state-like" interactions in binding its cognate DNA (Jen-Jacobson, L. (1997) Biopolymers 44, 153-180), which may be the solution to the well-known paradox between the relatively modest DNA-binding specificity exhibited by initiator proteins and the high specificity of initiation.

Tautomerism, acid-base equilibria, and H-bonding of the six histidines in subtilisin BPN' by NMR.

We have determined by (15)N, (1)H, and (13)C NMR, the chemical behavior of the six histidines in subtilisin BPN' and their PMSF and peptide boronic acid complexes in aqueous solution as a function of pH in the range of from 5 to 11, and have assigned every (15)N, (1)H, C(epsilon 1), and C(delta2) resonance of all His side chains in resting enzyme. Four of the six histidine residues (17, 39, 67, and 226) are neutrally charged and do not titrate. One histidine (238), located on the protein surface, titrates with pK(a) = 7.30 +/- 0.03 at 25 degrees C, having rapid proton exchange, but restricted mobility. The active site histidine (64) in mutant N155A titrates with a pK(a) value of 7.9 +/- 0.3 and sluggish proton exchange behavior, as shown by two-site exchange computer lineshape simulation. His 64 in resting enzyme contains an extremely high C(epsilon 1)-H proton chemical shift of 9.30 parts per million (ppm) owing to a conserved C(epsilon 1)-H(.)O=C H-bond from the active site imidazole to a backbone carbonyl group, which is found in all known serine proteases representing all four superfamilies. Only His 226, and His 64 at high pH, exist as the rare N(delta1)-H tautomer, exhibiting (13)C(delta1) chemical shifts approximately 9 ppm higher than those for N(epsilon 2)-H tautomers. His 64 in the PMSF complex, unlike that in the resting enzyme, is highly mobile in its low pH form, as shown by (15)N-(1)H NOE effects, and titrates with rapid proton exchange kinetics linked to a pK(a) value of 7.47 +/- 0.02.