Secreted major Venus flytrap chitinase enables digestion of Arthropod prey.

Predation plays a major role in energy and nutrient flow in the biological food chain. Plant carnivory has attracted much interest since Darwin's time, but many fundamental properties of the carnivorous lifestyle are largely unexplored. In particular, the chain of events leading from prey perception to its digestive utilization remains to be elucidated. One of the first steps after the capture of animal prey, i.e. the enzymatic breakup of the insects' chitin-based shell, is reflected by considerable chitinase activity in the secreted digestive fluid in the carnivorous plant Venus flytrap. This study addresses the molecular nature, function, and regulation of the underlying enzyme, VF chitinase-I. Using mass spectrometry based de novo sequencing, VF chitinase-I was identified in the secreted fluid. As anticipated for one of the most prominent proteins in the flytrap's "green stomach" during prey digestion, transcription of VF chitinase-I is restricted to glands and enhanced by secretion-inducing stimuli. In their natural habitat, Venus flytrap is exposed to high temperatures. We expressed and purified recombinant VF chitinase-I and show that the enzyme exhibits the hallmark properties expected from an enzyme active in the hot and acidic digestive fluid of Dionaea muscipula. Structural modeling revealed a relative compact globular form of VF chitinase-I, which might contribute to its overall stability and resistance to proteolysis. These peculiar characteristics could well serve industrial purposes, especially because of the ability to hydrolyze both soluble and crystalline chitin substrates including the commercially important cleavage of α-chitin.

The neuroendocrine protein 7B2 is intrinsically disordered.

The small neuroendocrine protein 7B2 has been shown to be required for the productive maturation of proprotein convertase 2 (proPC2) to an active enzyme form; this action is accomplished via its ability to block aggregation of proPC2 into nonactivatable forms. Recent data show that 7B2 can also act as a postfolding chaperone to block the aggregation of a number of other proteins, for example, α-synuclein. To gain insight into the mechanism of action of 7B2 in blocking protein aggregation, we performed structural studies of this protein using gel filtration chromatography, intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence, 1-anilino-8-naphthalenesulfonate (ANS) binding, circular dichroism (CD), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Gel filtration studies indicated that 7B2 exists as an extended monomer, eluting at a molecular mass higher than that expected for a globular protein of similar size. However, chemical cross-linking showed that 7B2 exhibits concentration-dependent oligomerization. CD experiments showed that both full-length 27 kDa 7B2 and the C-terminally truncated 21 kDa form lack appreciable secondary structure, although the longer protein exhibited more structural content than the latter, as demonstrated by intrinsic and ANS fluorescence studies. NMR spectra confirmed the lack of structure in native 7B2, but a disorder-to-order transition was observed upon incubation with one of its client proteins, α-synuclein. We conclude that 7B2 is a natively disordered protein whose function as an antiaggregant chaperone is likely facilitated by its lack of appreciable secondary structure and tendency to form oligomers.

Oxidative folding and structural analyses of a Kunitz-related inhibitor and its disulfide intermediates: functional implications.

Tick-derived protease inhibitor (TdPI) is a tight-binding Kunitz-related inhibitor of human tryptase ß with a unique structure and disulfide-bond pattern. Here we analyzed its oxidative folding and reductive unfolding by chromatographic and disulfide analyses of acid-trapped intermediates. TdPI folds through a stepwise generation of heterogeneous populations of one-disulfide, two-disulfide, and three-disulfide intermediates, with a major accumulation of the nonnative three-disulfide species IIIa. The rate-limiting step of the process is disulfide reshuffling within the three-disulfide population towards a productive intermediate that oxidizes directly into the native four-disulfide protein. TdPI unfolds through a major accumulation of the native three-disulfide species IIIb and the subsequent formation of two-disulfide and one-disulfide intermediates. NMR characterization of the acid-trapped and further isolated IIIa intermediate revealed a highly disordered conformation that is maintained by the presence of the disulfide bonds. Conversely, the NMR structure of IIIb showed a native-like conformation, with three native disulfide bonds and increased flexibility only around the two free cysteines, thus providing a molecular basis for its role as a productive intermediate. Comparison of TdPI with a shortened variant lacking the flexible prehead and posthead segments revealed that these regions do not contribute to the protein conformational stability or the inhibition of trypsin but are important for both the initial steps of the folding reaction and the inhibition of tryptase ß. Taken together, the results provide insights into the mechanism of oxidative folding of Kunitz inhibitors and pave the way for the design of TdPI variants with improved properties for biomedical applications.

Flexibility of the thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor pro-domain enables productive binding of protein substrates.

We have previously reported that thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI) exhibits intrinsic proteolytic activity toward large peptides. The structural basis for this observation was clarified by the crystal structures of human and bovine TAFI. These structures evinced a significant rotation of the pro-domain away from the catalytic moiety when compared with other pro-carboxypeptidases, thus enabling access of large peptide substrates to the active site cleft. Here, we further investigated the flexible nature of the pro-domain and demonstrated that TAFI forms productive complexes with protein carboxypeptidase inhibitors from potato, leech, and tick (PCI, LCI, and TCI, respectively). We determined the crystal structure of the bovine TAFI-TCI complex, revealing that the pro-domain was completely displaced from the position observed in the TAFI structure. It protruded into the bulk solvent and was disordered, whereas TCI occupied the position previously held by the pro-domain. The authentic nature of the presently studied TAFI-inhibitor complexes was supported by the trimming of the C-terminal residues from the three inhibitors upon complex formation. This finding suggests that the inhibitors interact with the active site of TAFI in a substrate-like manner. Taken together, these data show for the first time that TAFI is able to form a bona fide complex with protein carboxypeptidase inhibitors. This underlines the unusually flexible nature of the pro-domain and implies a possible mechanism for regulation of TAFI intrinsic proteolytic activity in vivo.

Insights into the two-domain architecture of the metallocarboxypeptidase inhibitor from the Ascaris parasite inferred from the mechanism of its oxidative folding.

The metallocarboxypeptidase inhibitor identified in the intestinal parasite Ascaris (ACI) comprises 67 amino acid residues and a novel fold consisting of two structurally similar modules, an N-terminal (NTD) and a C-terminal domain (CTD), each stabilized by two disulfide bonds. Both domains are linked via a connecting segment (CS) that includes a fifth disulfide bond. Here, we investigated the oxidative folding and reductive unfolding of ACI. It folds through a sequential formation of disulfide bonds that finally leads to the accumulation of a heterogeneous population of 5-disulfide non-native scrambled isomers. The reshuffling of these species into the native form constitutes the major kinetic trap of the folding reaction, being efficiently enhanced by the presence of reducing agent or protein disulfide isomerase. The analysis of ACI variants lacking the NTD reveals that this domain is indispensable for the correct folding of such inhibitor, most likely acting as a pro-segment that helps in the acquisition of a CTD native structure, the fundamental inhibitory piece. In addition to the CTD, both the NTD and the CS play a significant role in the function of ACI, as derived from the diminished inhibitory capacity of the truncated ACI variants. Finally, the reductive unfolding and disulfide scrambling analyses reveal that ACI displays an extremely high disulfide and conformational stability, which is consistent with its physiological function in a hostile environment. Altogether, the results provide important clues about the two-domain nature of ACI and may pave the way for its further engineering and development of a minimized inhibitor.

Mammalian metallopeptidase inhibition at the defense barrier of Ascaris parasite.

Roundworms of the genus Ascaris are common parasites of the human gastrointestinal tract. A battery of selective inhibitors protects them from host enzymes and the immune system. Here, a metallocarboxypeptidase (MCP) inhibitor, ACI, was identified in protein extracts from Ascaris by intensity-fading MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The 67-residue amino acid sequence of ACI showed no significant homology with any known protein. Heterologous overexpression and purification of ACI rendered a functional molecule with nanomolar equilibrium dissociation constants against MCPs, which denoted a preference for digestive and mast cell A/B-type MCPs. Western blotting and immunohistochemistry located ACI in the body wall, intestine, female reproductive tract, and fertilized eggs of Ascaris, in accordance with its target specificity. The crystal structure of the complex of ACI with human carboxypeptidase A1, one of its potential targets in vivo, revealed a protein with a fold consisting of two tandem homologous domains, each containing a beta-ribbon and two disulfide bonds. These domains are connected by an alpha-helical segment and a fifth disulfide bond. Binding and inhibition are exerted by the C-terminal tail, which enters the funnel-like active-site cavity of the enzyme and approaches the catalytic zinc ion. The findings reported provide a basis for the biological function of ACI, which may be essential for parasitic survival during infection.

Structure of activated thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor, a molecular link between coagulation and fibrinolysis.

Thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI) is a metallocarboxypeptidase (MCP) that links blood coagulation and fibrinolysis. TAFI hampers fibrin-clot lysis and is a pharmacological target for the treatment of thrombotic conditions. TAFI is transformed through removal of its prodomain by thrombin-thrombomodulin into TAFIa, which is intrinsically unstable and has a short half-life in vivo. Here we show that purified bovine TAFI activated in the presence of a proteinaceous inhibitor renders a stable enzyme-inhibitor complex. Its crystal structure reveals that TAFIa conforms to the alpha/beta-hydrolase fold of MCPs and displays two unique flexible loops on the molecular surface, accounting for structural instability and susceptibility to proteolysis. In addition, point mutations reported to enhance protein stability in vivo are mainly located in the first loop and in another surface region, which is a potential heparin-binding site. The protein inhibitor contacts both the TAFIa active site and an exosite, thus contributing to high inhibitory efficiency.

Study by HPLC-MS of the interaction of platinum antitumor complexes with potato carboxypeptidase inhibitor (PCI).

The interaction of the well-known antitumor drug cisplatin cis-[PtCl(2)(NH(3))(2)] and the compound trans-[PtCl(2)NH(3)(4-hydroxymethylpyridine)] with the small protein potato carboxypeptidase inhibitor (PCI) and a PCI mutant in which glycine-39 was substituted by methionine has been followed by HPLC/mass spectrometry. Our results showed that both Pt drugs were able to bind PCI through Met-39 and histidines in mutated PCI, whereas only the trans complex interacted significantly with wild PCI. In the cytotoxic studies, the monofunctional adduct PCI-Met-cisplatin was neither more active nor more selective than cisplatin itself when tested against three tumor cell lines with different number of EGF receptors. Those results suggested that the poor activity of the adduct could be just due to the small fraction of cisplatin which was decoordinated from the adduct and able to penetrate the tumor cells, as well as to the changes in the structure of the platinum drug after the loss of NH(3) groups upon binding PCI-Met.

Palladium(II) and platinum(II) organometallic complexes with the model nucleobase anions of thymine, uracil, and cytosine: antitumor activity and interactions with DNA of the platinum compounds.

Pd(II) and Pt(II) complexes with the anions of the model nucleobases 1-methylthymine (1-MethyH), 1-methyluracil (1-MeuraH), and 1-methylcytosine (1-MecytH) of the types [Pd(dmba)(mu-L)]2 [dmba = N,C-chelating 2-((dimethylamino)methyl)phenyl; L = 1-Methy, 1-Meura or 1-Mecyt] and [M(dmba)(L)(L')] [L = 1-Methy or 1-Meura; L' = PPh(3) (M = Pd or Pt), DMSO (M = Pt)] have been obtained. Palladium complexes of the types [Pd(C6F5)(N-N)(L)] [L = 1-Methy or 1-Meura; N-N = N,N,N',N'-tetramethylethylenediamine (tmeda), 2,2'-bipyridine (bpy), or 4,4'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine (Me2bpy)] and [NBu4][Pd(C6F5)(1-Methy)2(H2O)] have also been prepared. The crystal structures of [Pd(dmba)(mu-1-Methy)]2, [Pd(dmba)(mu-1-Mecyt)]2.2CHCl3, [Pd(dmba)(1-Methy)(PPh3)].3CHCl3, [Pt(dmba)(1-Methy)(PPh3)], [Pd(tmeda)(C6F5)(1-Methy)], and [NBu4][Pd(C6F5)(1-Methy)2(H2O)].H2O have been established by X-ray diffraction. The DNA adduct formation of the new platinum complexes synthesized was followed by circular dichroism and electrophoretic mobility. Atomic force microscopy images of the modifications caused by the platinum complexes on plasmid DNA pBR322 were also obtained. Values of IC50 were also calculated for the new platinum complexes against the tumor cell line HL-60. All the new platinum complexes were more active than cisplatin (up to 20-fold in some cases).