Year 2022: exploring COVID-19 pandemic in children.

COVID-19 pandemics is rapidly changing. In this article, we review progresses published in the Italian Journal of Pediatrics in 2022. More data on clinical pictures, prevention strategies and active management in children have been provided. The continued evolution of knowledge has driven transformations in the clinical approach to the disease and allowed key advancements in the care of children with COVID-19.

Advances for pediatricians in 2022: allergy, anesthesiology, cardiology, dermatology, endocrinology, gastroenterology, genetics, global health, infectious diseases, metabolism, neonatology, neurology, oncology, pulmonology.

The last year saw intensive efforts to advance knowledge in pediatric medicine. This review highlights important publications that have been issued in the Italian Journal of Pediatrics in 2022. We have chosen papers in the fields of allergy, anesthesiology, cardiology, dermatology, endocrinology, gastroenterology, genetics, global health, infectious diseases, metabolism, neonatology, neurology, oncology, pulmonology. Novel valuable developments in epidemiology, pathophysiology, prevention, diagnosis and treatment that can rapidly change the approach to diseases in childhood have been included and discussed.

Diagnosis of Paediatric Obstructive Sleep-Disordered Breathing beyond Polysomnography.

Obstructive sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) has significant impacts on health, and therefore, a timely and accurate diagnosis is crucial for effective management and intervention. This narrative review provides an overview of the current approaches utilised in the diagnosis of SDB in children. Diagnostic methods for SDB in children involve a combination of clinical assessment, medical history evaluation, questionnaires, and objective measurements. Polysomnography (PSG) is the diagnostic gold standard. It records activity of brain and tibial and submental muscles, heart rhythm, eye movements, oximetry, oronasal airflow, abdominal and chest movements, body position. Despite its accuracy, it is a time-consuming and expensive tool. Respiratory polygraphy instead monitors cardiorespiratory function without simultaneously assessing sleep and wakefulness; it is more affordable than PSG, but few paediatric studies compare these techniques and there is optional recommendation in children. Nocturnal oximetry is a simple and accessible exam that has high predictive value only for children at high risk. The daytime nap PSG, despite the advantage of shorter duration and lower costs, is not accurate for predicting SDB. Few paediatric data support the use of home testing during sleep. Finally, laboratory biomarkers and radiological findings are potentially useful hallmarks of SDB, but further investigations are needed to standardise their use in clinical practice.

Clinical and biochemical footprints of inherited metabolic diseases. XIII. Respiratory manifestations.

At any age, respiratory manifestations are a major cause of increased morbidity and mortality of inherited metabolic diseases (IMDs). Type and severity are extremely variable, this depending on the type of the underlying disorder. Symptoms and signs originating from upper or lower airways and/or thoracic wall and/or respiratory muscles involvement can occur either at presentation or in the late clinical course. Acute respiratory symptoms can trigger metabolic decompensation which, in turn, makes airway symptoms worse, creating a vicious circle. We have identified 181 IMDs associated with various types of respiratory symptoms which were classified into seven groups according to the type of clinical manifestations affecting the respiratory system: (i) respiratory failure, (ii) restrictive lung disease, (iii) interstitial lung disease, (iv) lower airway disease, (v) upper airway obstruction, (vi) apnea, and (vii) other. We also provided a list of investigations to be performed based on the respiratory phenotypes and indicated the therapeutic strategies currently available for IMD-associated airway disease. This represents the thirteenth issue in a series of educational summaries providing a comprehensive and updated list of metabolic differential diagnoses according to system involvement.

Validation of full-remote reporting for cervicovaginal cytology: the Caltagirone-Acireale distributed lab.

INTRODUCTION: Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer in women, and its prevention is based on vaccination and screening. Screening consists of molecular human papillomavirus (HPV) testing and cytologic analysis of cervical smears, which require expensive equipment and the interaction of numerous professionals such as biologists, cytologists, laboratory technicians, and pathologists. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We centralize the cervical samples from more than 51 clinics in 1 main laboratory, where automated HPV testing is performed. HPV-positive cases are collected and used to prepare a liquid-based cytology slide, which is stained and immediately scanned. The resulting whole-slide images (WSIs) are immediately available in a remote laboratory where they are examined by experienced cytologists using virtual microscopy. This setup was validated by making each of the 3 readers independently diagnose 506 specimens in random order, using both conventional light microscopy (CLM) and WSIs, with a minimum wash-out period of 3 weeks and with a final discussion for all cases. RESULTS: Intraobserver agreement among CLM and WSI ranged from 0.71 to 0.79, and interobserver agreement for the 3 readers compared with the consensus diagnosis was similar for the 2 modes of assessment. Readers subjectively felt confident in their WSI diagnosis for inadequate and negative cases, but less so in other cases. The perceived difficulty was slightly higher in WSI readings. CONCLUSIONS: Interobserver agreement in cervicovaginal cytology is moderate and does not vary if the slides are examined conventionally or digitally. Despite higher reported subjective difficulty and lower confidence in the WSI diagnosis, we did not observe a deterioration in diagnostic performance using WSI compared with CLM.

Chronic respiratory disorders due to aberrant innominate artery: a case series and critical review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: Tracheal compression (TC) due to vascular anomalies is an uncommon, but potentially serious cause of chronic respiratory disease in childhood. Vascular slings are congenital malformations resulting from abnormal development of the great vessels; in this group of disorders the most prevalent entity is the aberrant innominate artery (AIA). Here we provide a report on diagnosis and treatment of AIA in nine children with unexplained chronic respiratory symptoms. We describe the cases, perform a literature review, and provide a discussion on the diagnostic workup and treatment that can help manage AIA. METHODS: Clinical history, diagnostic procedures and treatment before and after the AIA diagnosis were retrospectively reviewed in nine children (5 boys and 4 girls), who were referred for recurrent-to-chronic respiratory manifestations over 10 years (2012-2022). We performed a comprehensive report on the ongoing clinical course and treatment as well as an electronic literature search on the topic. RESULTS: Diagnoses at referral, before AIA was identified, were chronic dry barking cough associated with recurrent pneumonia (n = 8, 89%), lobar/segmental atelectasis (n = 3, 33%), atopic/non atopic asthma (n = 3, 33%); pneumomediastinum with subcutaneous emphysema complicated the clinical course in one case. When referred to our Unit, all patients had been previously treated with repeated antibiotic courses (n = 9, 100%), alone (n = 6, 67%) or combined with prolonged antiasthma medications (n = 3, 33%) and/or daily chest physiotherapy (n = 2, 22%), but reported only partial clinical benefit. Median ages at symptom onset and at AIA diagnosis were 1.5 [0.08-13] and 6 [4-14] years, respectively, with a relevant delay in the definitive diagnosis (4.5 years). Tracheal stenosis at computed tomography (CT) was ≥ 51% in 4/9 cases and ≤ 50% in the remaining 5 subjects. Airway endoscopy was performed in 4 cases with CT evidence of tracheal stenosis ≥ 51% and confirmed CT findings. In these 4 cases, the decision of surgery was made based on endoscopy and CT findings combined with persistence of clinical symptoms despite medical treatment. The remaining 5 children were managed conservatively. CONCLUSIONS: TC caused by AIA may be responsible for unexplained chronic respiratory disease in childhood. Early diagnosis of AIA can decrease the use of expensive investigations or unsuccessful treatments, reduce disease morbidity, and accelerate the path toward a proper treatment.

Pathogenic variants in CLXN encoding the outer dynein arm docking-associated calcium-binding protein calaxin cause primary ciliary dyskinesia.

PURPOSE: Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) is a heterogeneous disorder that includes respiratory symptoms, laterality defects, and infertility caused by dysfunction of motile cilia. Most PCD-causing variants result in abnormal outer dynein arms (ODAs), which provide the generative force for respiratory ciliary beating and proper mucociliary clearance. METHODS: In addition to studies in mouse and planaria, clinical exome sequencing and functional analyses in human were performed. RESULTS: In this study, we identified homozygous pathogenic variants in CLXN (EFCAB1/ODAD5) in 3 individuals with laterality defects and respiratory symptoms. Consistently, we found that Clxn is expressed in mice left-right organizer. Transmission electron microscopy depicted ODA defects in distal ciliary axonemes. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed absence of CLXN from the ciliary axonemes, absence of the ODA components DNAH5, DNAI1, and DNAI2 from the distal axonemes, and mislocalization or absence of DNAH9. In addition, CLXN was undetectable in ciliary axonemes of individuals with defects in the ODA-docking machinery: ODAD1, ODAD2, ODAD3, and ODAD4. Furthermore, SMED-EFCAB1-deficient planaria displayed ciliary dysmotility. CONCLUSION: Our results revealed that pathogenic variants in CLXN cause PCD with defects in the assembly of distal ODAs in the respiratory cilia. CLXN should be referred to as ODA-docking complex-associated protein ODAD5.

Respiratory phenotypes of neuromuscular diseases: A challenging issue for pediatricians.

Neuromuscular disease (NMDs) encompass a heterogeneous group of genetic disorders, with respiratory problems of variable intensity and progression described at any pediatric age, from infancy to adolescence, and they are largely associated with significant lifelong morbidity and high mortality. Restriction of breathing, impaired gas exchange, decline of lung function and sleep disordered breathing progressively develop because of muscular weakness and culminate in respiratory failure. Depending on the disease progression, airways manifestations can take weeks to months or even years to evolve, thus depicting two major respiratory phenotypes, characterized by rapid or slow progression to respiratory failure. Assessing type and age at onset of airways problems and their evolution over time can support pediatricians in the diagnostic assessment of NMD. In addition, knowing the characteristics of patients' respiratory phenotype can increase the level of awareness among neonatologists, geneticists, neurologists, pulmonologists, nutritionists, and chest therapists, supporting them in the challenging task of the multidisciplinary medical care of patients. In this review we examine the issues related to the pediatric respiratory phenotypes of NMD and present a novel algorithm that can act as a guide for the diagnostic agenda and the key preventive or therapeutic interventions of airways manifestations. With prolonged survival of children with NMD, the advent of neuromuscular respiratory medicine, including accurate assessment of the respiratory phenotype, will help physicians to determine patients' prognoses and to design studies for the evaluation of new therapies.

Primary ciliary dyskinesia: A multicenter survey on clinical practice and patient management in Italy.

INTRODUCTION: There are no recent data on primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) distribution, diagnosis and treatment in Italy. METHODS: A descriptive study based on a survey questionnaire. It consisted of three sections (patients, diagnosis, and treatment), and sent to all the Italian PCD Centers. RESULTS: Questionnaires obtained from 20/22 centers in 12/20 regions showed that the total number of PCD patients treated at the participating centers was of 416. Out of all centers, 55% follow <20 patients, two centers have >40 patients, and 75% follow both pediatric and adults. Age at diagnosis was between 4 and 8 years in 45% of the centers, <3 years in three centers. Nasal nitric oxide, transmission electron microscopy and ciliary high-speed video microscopy are performed in 75%, 90%, and 40% of centers, respectively. Immunofluorescence is available in five centers. Genetic analysis is offered in 55% of the centers, and in seven centers >50% of the patients have a known genetic profile. Patients treated at all centers receive inhaled saline solutions, corticosteroids and chest physiotherapy. Prophylactic antibiotics and mucolytics are prescribed in 95% and 50% of the centers, respectively. Pseudomonas infection is treated with oral or inhaled antibiotics. CONCLUSIONS: Many Italian centers care for a small number of pediatric and adult patients, and diagnosis is often delayed. We found a great variability in the available diagnostic procedures, as well in the prescribed therapies. Our study will help to uniform diagnostic algorithm and share treatments protocols for PCD in Italy and allowed to set specific national goals.

New insights in pediatrics in 2021: choices in allergy and immunology, critical care, endocrinology, gastroenterology, genetics, haematology, infectious diseases, neonatology, neurology, nutrition, palliative care, respiratory tract illnesses and telemedicine.

In this review, we report the developments across pediatric subspecialties that have been published in the Italian Journal of Pediatrics in 2021. We highlight advances in allergy and immunology, critical care, endocrinology, gastroenterology, genetics, hematology, infectious diseases, neonatology, neurology, nutrition, palliative care, respiratory tract illnesses and telemedicine.

The year 2021 in COVID-19 pandemic in children.

In this article, the developments in the field of COVID-19 pandemic published in the Italian Journal of Pediatrics in 2021 are reflected. We describe progresses in SARS-CoV-2 transmission route, clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment, and access to health care facilities in children. They led to substantial changes in the clinical approach.

The disease-specific clinical trial network for primary ciliary dyskinesia: PCD-CTN.

Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) is a rare genetic disorder characterised by impaired mucociliary clearance leading to irreversible lung damage. In contrast to other rare lung diseases like cystic fibrosis (CF), there are only few clinical trials and limited evidence-based treatments. Management is mainly based on expert opinions and treatment is challenging due to a wide range of clinical manifestations and disease severity. To improve clinical and translational research and facilitate development of new treatments, the clinical trial network for PCD (PCD-CTN) was founded in 2020 under the framework of the European Reference Network (ERN)-LUNG PCD Core. Applications from European PCD sites interested in participating in the PCD-CTN were requested. Inclusion criteria consisted of patient numbers, membership of ERN-LUNG PCD Core, use of associated standards of care, experience in PCD and/or CF clinical research, resources to run clinical trials, good clinical practice (GCP) certifications and institutional support. So far, applications from 22 trial sites in 18 European countries have been approved, including >1400 adult and >1600 paediatric individuals with PCD. The PCD-CTN is headed by a coordinating centre and consists of a steering and executive committee, a data safety monitoring board and committees for protocol review, training and standardisation. A strong association with patient organisations and industrial companies are further cornerstones. All participating trial sites agreed on a code of conduct. As CTNs from other diseases have demonstrated successfully, this newly formed PCD-CTN operates to establish evidence-based treatments for this orphan disease and to bring new personalised treatment approaches to patients.

Update on Long-Acting Anticholinergics in Children and Adolescents With Difficult and Severe Asthma.

Tiotropium bromide is the only long-acting muscarinic antagonist (LAMA) approved for treatment of patients aged ≥6 years old who have symptoms of uncontrolled asthma. Results from several clinical trials have found that once-daily inhaled tiotropium bromide is safe and efficacious in 6- to 17-year-olds with symptomatic asthma despite treatment with inhaled corticosteroids, with or without other medications. There are still few available studies investigating the impact of tiotropium bromide treatment in preschool children with suboptimal control. In this narrative review, we summarize the pharmacological effects of the LAMA tiotropium bromide, provide an overview about current asthma studies at different pediatric ages, and describe future research needs.

Lung function from school age to adulthood in primary ciliary dyskinesia.

Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) presents with symptoms early in life and the disease course may be progressive, but longitudinal data on lung function are scarce. This multinational cohort study describes lung function trajectories in children, adolescents and young adults with PCD. We analysed data from 486 patients with repeated lung function measurements obtained between the age of 6 and 24 years from the International PCD Cohort and calculated z-scores for forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC) and FEV1/FVC ratio using the Global Lung Function Initiative 2012 references. We described baseline lung function and change of lung function over time and described their associations with possible determinants in mixed-effects linear regression models. Overall, FEV1, FVC and FEV1/FVC z-scores declined over time (average crude annual FEV1 decline was -0.07 z-scores), but not at the same rate for all patients. FEV1 z-scores improved over time in 21% of patients, remained stable in 40% and declined in 39%. Low body mass index was associated with poor baseline lung function and with further decline. Results differed by country and ultrastructural defect, but we found no evidence of differences by sex, calendar year of diagnosis, age at diagnosis, diagnostic certainty or laterality defect. Our study shows that on average lung function in PCD declines throughout the entire period of lung growth, from childhood to young adult age, even among patients treated in specialised centres. It is essential to develop strategies to reverse this tendency and improve prognosis.

Obstructive Sleep Apnoea in Children with Down Syndrome: A Multidisciplinary Approach.

A comprehensive evaluation of obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) may allow for the development of more efficient management of Down syndrome (DS). We aimed to evaluate the effect of a multidisciplinary approach to DS with OSA. A total of 48 DS children aged 4−12 years were prospectively investigated with nasal endoscopy, orthodontic examination, and overnight polygraphy (PG); the Italian Child Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ-IT) was filled out by the mothers. The total CSHQ-IT score was 63 (96% of children reporting sleep problems). The major ear, nose, and throat characteristics were enlarged palatine tonsils (62%), adenoid tonsils (85%), and chronic rhinosinusitis (85%). DS children showed orthognathic profile in 68% of cases, class I relationship in 63%, and cross-bite in 51%. PG revealed OSA in 67% of cases (37% mild, 63% moderate−severe). The oxygen desaturation index (ODI) was higher in the group with OSA (5.2) than with non-OSA (1.3; p < 0.001). The ODI was higher (p = 0.001) and SpO2 lower (p = 0.03) in children with moderate−severe OSA than with mild OSA. The apnoea−hypopnea index (AHI) and percentage time with SpO2 < 90% were higher in DS children with grade III than with grade I or II adenoids (5 vs. 1, p = 0.04, and 1.2 vs. 0.1, p = 0.01, respectively). No significant correlations were found between PG and the total CSHQ-IT score or orthodontic data. However, children showing associated cross-bite, grade III adenoids and size 3 or 4 palatine tonsils showed higher AHI and ODI than those without (p = 0.01 and p = 0.04, respectively). A coordinated multidisciplinary approach with overnight PG is a valuable tool when developing diagnostic protocols for OSA in DS.

Liver-Directed Adeno-Associated Virus-Mediated Gene Therapy for Mucopolysaccharidosis Type VI.

BACKGROUND: Mucopolysaccharidosis type VI (MPS VI) is an inherited multisystem lysosomal disorder due to arylsulfatase B (ARSB) deficiency that leads to widespread accumulation of glycosaminoglycans (GAG), which are excreted in increased amounts in urine. MPS VI is characterized by progressive dysostosis multiplex, connective tissue and cardiac involvement, and hepatosplenomegaly. Enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) is available but requires life-long and costly intravenous infusions; moreover, it has limited efficacy on diseased skeleton and cardiac valves, compromised pulmonary function, and corneal opacities. METHODS: We enrolled nine patients with MPS VI 4 years of age or older in a phase 1/2 open-label gene therapy study. After ERT was interrupted, patients each received a single intravenous infusion of an adeno-associated viral vector serotype 8 expressing ARSB. Participants were sequentially enrolled in one of three dose cohorts: low (three patients), intermediate (two patients), or high (four patients). The primary outcome was safety; biochemical and clinical end points were secondary outcomes. RESULTS: The infusions occurred without severe adverse events attributable to the vector, meeting the prespecified end point. Participants in the low and intermediate dose cohorts displayed stable serum ARSB of approximately 20% of the mean healthy value but returned to ERT by 14 months after gene therapy because of increased urinary GAG. Participants in the high-dose cohort had sustained serum ARSB of 30% to 100% of the mean healthy value and a modest urinary GAG increase that did not reach a concentration at which ERT reintroduction was needed. In the high-dose group, there was no clinical deterioration for up to 2 years after gene therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Liver-directed gene therapy for participants with MPS VI did not have a dose-limiting side-effect and adverse event profile; high-dose treatment resulted in ARSB expression over at least 24 months with preliminary evidence of disease stabilization. (Funded by the Telethon Foundation ETS, the European Commission Seventh Framework Programme, and the Isaac Foundation; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT03173521; EudraCT number, 2016-002328-10.)

COVID-19 Vaccinations: Perceptions and Behaviours in People with Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia.

Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) is a rare genetic disease that causes recurrent respiratory infections. People with PCD may be at higher risk of severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and therefore vaccination against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is important. We studied vaccination willingness, speed of vaccination uptake, side effects, and changes in social contact behaviour after vaccination in people with PCD. We used data from COVID-PCD, an international participatory cohort study. A COVID-19 vaccination questionnaire was emailed to participants in May 2021 and 423 participants from 31 countries replied (median age: 30 years, range 1-85 years; 261 (62%) female). Vaccination uptake and willingness were high, with 273 of 287 adults (96%) being vaccinated or willing to be in June 2021; only 4% were hesitant. The most common reason for hesitancy was fear of side effects, reported by 88%. Mild side effects were common, but no participant reported severe side effects. Half of the participants changed their social behaviour after vaccination by seeing friends and family more often. The high vaccination willingness in the study population might reflect the extraordinary effort taken by PCD support groups to inform people about COVID-19 vaccination. Clear and specific information and involvement of representatives is important for high vaccine uptake.