Simultaneous Coherent and Displacement Compounding for 2D Noninvasive Carotid Strain Imaging: a Proof of Principle Study.

Arteriosclerosis results from lipid buildup in artery walls, leading to plaque formation, and is a leading cause of death. Plaque rupture can cause blood clots that might lead to a stroke. Distinguishing plaque types is a challenge, but ultrasound elastography can help by assessing plaque composition based on strain values. Since the artery has a circular structure, an accurate axial and lateral displacement strategy is needed to derive the radial and circumferential strains. A high precision lateral displacement is challenging due to the lack of phase information in the lateral direction of the beamformed RF data. Previously, our group has developed a compounding technique in which the lateral displacement is estimated using tri-angulation of the axial displacement estimated from transmitting and beamforming ultrasound beams at ±20°. However, transmitting with a single plane wave will reduce signal-to-noise and contrast-to-noise ratio as well as lateral resolution. In this paper, we combine our displacement compounding with coherent compounding. Instead of transmitting a single plane wave, multiple plane waves are transmitted at certain angles centered on the angle of the beamforming grids, and then the backscattered wavefronts are beamformed and coherently compounded on the center of the transmit beams (-20°, +20° and 0°). The numerical investigation using the GE9LD probe (f0 = 5.32 MHz, pitch = 230 µm, width = 43.9 mm) led us to 19 plane waves spanning angles within -10° to 10° (with respect to center of the transmit beams); resulting in a total of 57 plane wave transmit (for 3 beamforming grids at 0° and ±20°). FIELD II simulations of a cylindrically-shaped phantom (mimicking the carotid artery) at a signal-to-noise ratio ≥ 20 dB shows that the proposed method decreases the root-mean-square-error of the lateral displacement and strain estimations by 40% and 45% compared to the previous method, respectively. The results of our experiments with a carotid artery phantom (made out of 10% PVA) show that the proposed method provides strain images with a higher quality and more in agreement with the theory, with 26% lower standard deviation, specially at the peak systolic phase. The proposed method paves the path toward improved quality in vivo 2D strain imaging using our displacement compounding technique and translating it to 3D with a row-column array.

Flexible large-area ultrasound arrays for medical applications made using embossed polymer structures.

With the huge progress in micro-electronics and artificial intelligence, the ultrasound probe has become the bottleneck in further adoption of ultrasound beyond the clinical setting (e.g. home and monitoring applications). Today, ultrasound transducers have a small aperture, are bulky, contain lead and are expensive to fabricate. Furthermore, they are rigid, which limits their integration into flexible skin patches. New ways to fabricate flexible ultrasound patches have therefore attracted much attention recently. First prototypes typically use the same lead-containing piezo-electric materials, and are made using micro-assembly of rigid active components on plastic or rubber-like substrates. We present an ultrasound transducer-on-foil technology based on thermal embossing of a piezoelectric polymer. High-quality two-dimensional ultrasound images of a tissue mimicking phantom are obtained. Mechanical flexibility and effective area scalability of the transducer are demonstrated by functional integration into an endoscope probe with a small radius of 3 mm and a large area (91.2×14 mm2) non-invasive blood pressure sensor.

Cascaded Plane Wave Ultrasound for Blood Velocity Vector Imaging in the Carotid Artery.

Cascaded dual-polarity waves (CDWs) imaging increases the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) by transmitting trains of pulses with different polarity order, which are combined via decoding afterward. This potentially enables velocity vector imaging (VVI) in more challenging SNR conditions. However, the motion of blood in between the trains will influence the decoding process. In this work, the use of CDW for blood VVI is evaluated for the first time. Dual-angle, plane wave (PW) ultrasound, CDW-coded, and noncoded conventional PW (cPW), was acquired using a 7.8 MHz linear array at a pulse repetition frequency (PRF) of 8 kHz. CDW-channel data were decoded prior to beamforming and cross correlation-based compound speckle tracking for VVI. Simulations of single scatterer motion show a high dependence of amplitude gain on the velocity magnitude and direction for CDW-coded transmissions. Both simulations and experiments of parabolic flow show increased SNRs for CDW imaging. As a result, CDW outperforms cPW VVI in low SNR conditions, based on both bias and standard deviation (SD). Quantitative linear regression and qualitative analyses of simulated realistic carotid artery blood flow show a similar performance of CDW and cPW for high SNR (14 dB) conditions. However, reducing the SNR to 6 dB, results in a root-mean-squared error 2.7× larger for cPW versus CDW, and an R2 of 0.4 versus 0.9. Initial in vivo evaluation of a healthy carotid artery shows increased SNR and more reliable velocity estimates for CDW versus cPW. In conclusion, this work demonstrates that CDW imaging facilitates improved VVI of deeper located carotid arteries.

FLUST: A fast, open source framework for ultrasound blood flow simulations.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Ultrasound based blood velocity estimation is a continuously developing frontier, where the vast number of possible acquisition setups and velocity estimators makes it challenging to assess which combination is better suited for a given imaging application. FLUST, the Flow-Line based Ultrasound Simulation Tool, may be used to address this challenge, providing a common platform for evaluation of velocity estimation schemes on in silico data. However, the FLUST approach had some limitations in its original form, including reduced robustness for phase sensitive setups and the need for manual selection of integrity parameters. In addition, implementation of the technique and therefore also documentation of signal integrity was left to potential users of the approach. METHODS: In this work, several improvements to the FLUST technique are proposed and investigated, and a robust, open source simulation framework developed. The software supports several transducer types and acquisition setups, in addition to a range of different flow phantoms. The main goal of this work is to offer a robust, computationally cheap and user-friendly framework to simulate ultrasound data from stationary blood velocity fields and thereby facilitate design and evaluation of estimation schemes, including acquisition design, velocity estimation and other post-processing steps. RESULTS: The technical improvements proposed in this work resulted in reduced interpolation errors, reduced variability in signal power, and also automatic selection of spatial and temporal discretization parameters. Results are presented illustrating the challenges and the effectiveness of the solutions. The integrity of the improved simulation framework is validated in an extensive study, with results indicating that speckle statistics, spatial and temporal correlation and frequency content all correspond well with theoretical predictions. Finally, an illustrative example shows how FLUST may be used throughout the design and optimization process of a velocity estimator. CONCLUSIONS: The FLUST framework is available as a part of the UltraSound ToolBox (USTB), and the results in this paper demonstrate that it can be used as an efficient and reliable tool for the development and validation of ultrasound-based velocity estimation schemes.

In Vivo Comparison of Pulse Wave Velocity Estimation Based on Ultrafast Plane Wave Imaging and High-Frame-Rate Focused Transmissions.

Ultrasound-based local pulse wave velocity (PWV) estimation, as a measure of arterial stiffness, can be based on fast focused imaging (FFI) or plane wave imaging (PWI). This study was aimed at comparing the accuracy of in vivo PWV estimation using FFI and PWI. Ultrasound radiofrequency data of carotid arteries were acquired in 14 healthy volunteers (25-57 y) by executing the FFI (12 lines, 7200 Hz) and PWI (128 lines, 2000 Hz) methods consecutively. PWV was derived at two time-reference points, dicrotic notch (DN) and systolic foot (SF), for multiple pressure cycles by fitting a linear function through the positions of the peaks of low-pass filtered wall acceleration curves as a function of time. The accuracy of PWV estimation was determined for various cutoff frequencies (10-200 Hz). No statistically significant difference was observed between PWVs estimated by both approaches. The PWV and R2 at DN were higher, on average, than those at SF (PWV/R2: FFI SF 5.5/0.92, FFI DN 6.1/0.92; PWI SF 5.4/0.89, PWI DN 6.3/0.95). The use of cutoff frequencies between 40 and 80 Hz provided the most accurate PWVs. Both methods seemed equally suitable for use in clinical practice, although we have a preference for the PWV at DN given the higher R2 values.

In Vivo Blood Velocity Vector Imaging Using Adaptive Velocity Compounding in the Carotid Artery Bifurcation.

Visualization and quantification of blood flow are considered important for early detection of atherosclerosis and patient-specific diagnosis and intervention. As conventional Doppler imaging is limited to 1-D velocity estimates, 2-D and 3-D techniques are being developed. We introduce an adaptive velocity compounding technique that estimates the 2-D velocity vector field using predominantly axial displacements estimated by speckle tracking from dual-angle plane wave acquisitions. Straight-vessel experiments with a 7.8-MHz linear array transducer connected to a Verasonics Vantage ultrasound system revealed that the technique performed with a maximum velocity magnitude bias and angle bias of -3.7% (2.8% standard deviation) and -0.16° (0.41° standard deviation), respectively. In vivo, complex flow patterns were visualized in two healthy and three diseased carotid arteries and quantified using a vector complexity measure that increased with increasing wall irregularity. This measure could potentially be a relevant clinical parameter which might aid in early detection of atherosclerosis.

3-D Strain Imaging of the Carotid Bifurcation: Methods and in-Human Feasibility.

Atherosclerotic plaque development in the carotid artery bifurcation elevates the risk for stroke, which is often initiated by plaque rupture. The risk-to-rupture of a plaque is related to its composition. Two-dimensional non-invasive carotid elastography studies have found a correlation between wall strain and plaque composition. This study introduces a technique to perform non-invasive volumetric elastography in vivo. Three-dimensional ultrasound data of carotid artery bifurcations were acquired in four asymptomatic individuals using an electrocardiogram-triggered multislice acquisition device that scanned over a length of 35 mm (350 slices) using a linear transducer (L11-3, fc = 9 MHz). For each slice, three-angle ultrasound plane wave data were acquired and beamformed. A correction for breathing-induced motion was applied to spatially align the slices, enabling 3-D cross-correlation-based compound displacement, distensibility and strain estimation. Distensibility values matched with previously published values, while the corresponding volumetric principal strain maps revealed locally elevated compressive and tensile strains. This study presents for the first time 3-D elastography of carotid arteries in vivo.

Simultaneous Vascular Strain and Blood Vector Velocity Imaging Using High-Frequency Versus Conventional-Frequency Plane Wave Ultrasound: A Phantom Study.

Plaque strain and blood vector velocity imaging of stenosed arteries are expected to aid in diagnosis and prevention of cerebrovascular disease. Ultrafast plane wave imaging enables simultaneous strain and velocity estimation. Multiple ultrasound vendors are introducing high-frequency ultrasound probes and systems. This paper investigates whether the use of high-frequency ultrafast ultrasound is beneficial for assessing blood velocities and strain in arteries. The performance of strain and blood flow velocity estimation was compared between a high-frequency transducer (MS250, fc = 21 MHz) and a clinically utilized transducer (L12-5, fc = 9 MHz). Quantitative analysis based on straight tube phantom experiments revealed that the MS250 outperformed the L12-5 in the superficial region: low velocities near the wall were more accurately estimated and wall strains were better resolved. At greater than 2-cm echo depth, the L12-5 performed better due to the high attenuation of the MS250 probe. Qualitative comparison using a perfused patient-specific carotid bifurcation phantom confirmed these findings. Thus, in conclusion, for strain and blood velocity estimation for depths up to ~2 cm, a high-frequency probe is recommended.

A Comparison Between Compounding Techniques Using Large Beam-Steered Plane Wave Imaging for Blood Vector Velocity Imaging in a Carotid Artery Model.

Conventional color Doppler imaging is limited, since it only provides velocity estimates along the ultrasound beam direction for a restricted field of view at a limited frame rate. High-frame-rate speckle tracking, using plane wave transmits, has shown potential for 2-D blood velocity estimation. However, due to the lack of focusing in transmit, image quality gets reduced, which hampers speckle tracking. Although ultrafast imaging facilitates improved clutter filtering, it still remains a major challenge in blood velocity estimation. Signal dropouts and poor velocity estimates are still present for high beam-to-flow angles and low blood flow velocities. In this paper, ultrafast plane wave imaging was combined with multiscale speckle tracking to assess the 2-D blood velocity vector in a common carotid artery (CCA) flow field. A multiangled plane wave imaging sequence was used to compare the performance of displacement compounding, coherent compounding, and compound speckle tracking. Zero-degree plane wave imaging was also evaluated. The performance of the methods was evaluated before and after clutter filtering for the large range of velocities (0-1.5 m/s) that are normally present in a healthy CCA during the cardiac cycle. An extensive simulation study was performed, based on a sophisticated model of the CCA, to investigate and evaluate the performance of the methods at different pulse repetition frequencies and signal-to-noise levels. In vivo data were acquired of a healthy carotid artery bifurcation to support the simulation results. In general, methods utilizing compounding after speckle tracking, i.e., displacement compounding and compound speckle tracking, were least affected by clutter filtering and provided the most robust and accurate estimates for the entire velocity range. Displacement compounding, which uses solely axial information to estimate the velocity vector, provided most accurate velocity estimates, although it required sufficiently high pulse repetition frequencies in high blood velocity phases and reliable estimates for all acquisition angles. When this latter requirement was not met, compound speckle tracking was most accurate, because it uses the possibility to discard angular velocity estimates corrupted by clutter filtering. Similar effects were observed for in vivo data obtained at the carotid artery bifurcation. Investigating a combination of these two compounding techniques is recommended for future research.

2-D Versus 3-D Cross-Correlation-Based Radial and Circumferential Strain Estimation Using Multiplane 2-D Ultrafast Ultrasound in a 3-D Atherosclerotic Carotid Artery Model.

Three-dimensional (3-D) strain estimation might improve the detection and localization of high strain regions in the carotid artery (CA) for identification of vulnerable plaques. This paper compares 2-D versus 3-D displacement estimation in terms of radial and circumferential strain using simulated ultrasound (US) images of a patient-specific 3-D atherosclerotic CA model at the bifurcation embedded in surrounding tissue generated with ABAQUS software. Global longitudinal motion was superimposed to the model based on the literature data. A Philips L11-3 linear array transducer was simulated, which transmitted plane waves at three alternating angles at a pulse repetition rate of 10 kHz. Interframe (IF) radio-frequency US data were simulated in Field II for 191 equally spaced longitudinal positions of the internal CA. Accumulated radial and circumferential displacements were estimated using tracking of the IF displacements estimated by a two-step normalized cross-correlation method and displacement compounding. Least-squares strain estimation was performed to determine accumulated radial and circumferential strain. The performance of the 2-D and 3-D methods was compared by calculating the root-mean-squared error of the estimated strains with respect to the reference strains obtained from the model. More accurate strain images were obtained using the 3-D displacement estimation for the entire cardiac cycle. The 3-D technique clearly outperformed the 2-D technique in phases with high IF longitudinal motion. In fact, the large IF longitudinal motion rendered it impossible to accurately track the tissue and cumulate strains over the entire cardiac cycle with the 2-D technique.

Correlation-based discrimination between cardiac tissue and blood for segmentation of the left ventricle in 3-D echocardiographic images.

For automated segmentation of 3-D echocardiographic images, incorporation of temporal information may be helpful. In this study, optimal settings for calculation of temporal cross-correlations between subsequent time frames were determined, to obtain the maximum cross-correlation (MCC) values that provided the best contrast between blood and cardiac tissue over the entire cardiac cycle. Both contrast and boundary gradient quality measures were assessed to optimize MCC values with respect to signal choice (radiofrequency or envelope data) and axial window size. Optimal MCC values were incorporated into a deformable model to automatically segment the left ventricular cavity. MCC values were tested against, and combined with, filtered, demodulated radiofrequency data. Results reveal that using envelope data in combination with a relatively small axial window (0.7-1.25 mm) at fine scale results in optimal contrast and boundary gradient between the two tissues over the entire cardiac cycle. Preliminary segmentation results indicate that incorporation of MCC values has additional value for automated segmentation of the left ventricle.

New developments in paediatric cardiac functional ultrasound imaging.

Ultrasound imaging can be used to estimate the morphology as well as the motion and deformation of tissues. If the interrogated tissue is actively deforming, this deformation is directly related to its function and quantification of this deformation is normally referred as 'strain imaging'. Tissue can also be deformed by applying an internal or external force and the resulting, induced deformation is a function of the mechanical tissue characteristics. In combination with the load applied, these strain maps can be used to estimate or reconstruct the mechanical properties of tissue. This technique was named 'elastography' by Ophir et al. in 1991. Elastography can be used for atherosclerotic plaque characterisation, while the contractility of the heart or skeletal muscles can be assessed with strain imaging. Rather than using the conventional video format (DICOM) image information, radio frequency (RF)-based ultrasound methods enable estimation of the deformation at higher resolution and with higher precision than commercial methods using Doppler (tissue Doppler imaging) or video image data (2D speckle tracking methods). However, the improvement in accuracy is mainly achieved when measuring strain along the ultrasound beam direction, so it has to be considered a 1D technique. Recently, this method has been extended to multiple directions and precision further improved by using spatial compounding of data acquired at multiple beam steered angles. Using similar techniques, the blood velocity and flow can be determined. RF-based techniques are also beneficial for automated segmentation of the ventricular cavities. In this paper, new developments in different techniques of quantifying cardiac function by strain imaging, automated segmentation, and methods of performing blood flow imaging are reviewed and their application in paediatric cardiology is discussed.

Suitability of pharmacokinetic models for dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI of abdominal aortic aneurysm vessel wall: a comparison.

PURPOSE: Increased microvascularization of the abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) vessel wall has been related to AAA progression and rupture. The aim of this study was to compare the suitability of three pharmacokinetic models to describe AAA vessel wall enhancement using dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients with AAA underwent DCE-MRI at 1.5 Tesla. The volume transfer constant (K(trans) ), which reflects microvascular flow, permeability and surface area, was calculated by fitting the blood and aneurysm vessel wall gadolinium concentration curves. The relative fit errors, parameter uncertainties and parameter reproducibilities for the Patlak, Tofts and Extended Tofts model were compared to find the most suitable model. Scan-rescan reproducibility was assessed using the interclass correlation coefficient and coefficient of variation (CV). Further, the relationship between K(trans) and AAA size was investigated. RESULTS: DCE-MRI examinations from thirty-nine patients (mean age±SD: 72±6 years; M/F: 35/4) with an mean AAA maximal diameter of 49±6 mm could be included for pharmacokinetic analysis. Relative fit uncertainties for K(trans) based on the Patlak model (17%) were significantly lower compared to the Tofts (37%) and Extended Tofts model (42%) (p<0.001). K(trans) scan-rescan reproducibility for the Patlak model (ICC = 0.61 and CV = 22%) was comparable with the Tofts (ICC = 0.61, CV = 23%) and Extended Tofts model (ICC = 0.76, CV = 22%). K(trans) was positively correlated with maximal AAA diameter (Spearman's ρ = 0.38, p = 0.02) using the Patlak model. CONCLUSION: Using the presented imaging protocol, the Patlak model is most suited to describe DCE-MRI data of the AAA vessel wall with good K(trans) scan-rescan reproducibility.