Morphologic Differentiation of the Exotic Parasitoid Eupelmus pulchriceps (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) in the Galapagos Archipelago.

The historical and geographical properties of the archipelagos allow a detailed study of species diversification, and phenotypic traits can indicate the extent of such processes. Eupelmus pulchriceps (Cameron, 1904) is an exotic species to the Galapagos archipelago, and generalist parasitoid that attacks a beetle species that consumes the seeds of the invasive shrub Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. Despite extensive sampling, the wasp is recorded only in Santa Cruz and San Cristobal islands of the Galapagos archipelago. Thus, using 112 female wasps, we compare body size, proportion, and allometric differentiations within and between the two islands. There were no body size differences between islands. A PerMANOVA indicates differences between the islands and a single differentiation between two localities of one island. Allometric differences between islands were not the same for all structures. These results are consistent with the greater distance between islands than between localities and suggest a differentiation process. The variables with allometric differentiation are associated with wings and ovipositor, possibly responding to different ecological pressures. It is interesting that this parasitoid, recently arrived at the archipelago, is already showing differentiation. Also, it is essential to monitor the behavior of these wasps in the archipelago, given their potential to access other species affecting the trophic interactions of the local biota.

A new genus and five new species of pseudoscorpions (Arachnida, Pseudoscorpiones, Withiidae) from Colombia.

The pseudoscorpion family Withiidae is widely distributed around the world, with most of its diversity in tropical areas. Five new species and a new genus from Colombia are described: Cystowithiusflorezisp. nov., Parawithiusbromelicolasp. nov., Oligowithiusachaguasp. nov., and the genus Paciwithiusgen. nov. with two species Paciwithiusvalduparensissp. nov. and Paciwithiuschimbilacussp. nov. A reassessment of the subgenus Dolichowithius (Oligowithius) Beier, 1936 allows the elevation to a full generic level, and the transfer of the only known species to Oligowithius, forming the new combination Oligowithiusabnormis (Beier, 1936), comb. nov.

Paper wasps are darker at high elevation.

High mountains are harsh environments in which colder temperatures and higher levels of UV-B radiation are common. These abiotic conditions strongly affect animals' biology, often constraining their survival and reproduction. As a result, adaptations to live in such habitats are expected to evolve. Body color is thought to be adaptive to the environment that animals experience. Tegument melanization improves heat gain and provides photoprotection. Therefore, at high elevation, ectotherms are expected to be darker (well-melanized). We test this prediction in the paper wasp Agelaia pallipes (Hymenoptera: Vespidae), a species distributed across an elevational gradient in the Colombian Andes. We used Malaise traps and sampled a total of 146 wasps along nine elevations, ranging from 2,600-3,380 m above sea level. Standard digital photography was used to measure the body luminance and colour patterning in different body parts of dry-preserved specimens. There was striking variation in body luminance (darker and lighter), color patterning (patched, smoothed, homogeneous) and surface texture (shiny and matte), but the kind and degree of variation depended on the body part examined. Wasps from higher elevations had darker thoraces, confirming our prediction. Besides, at high elevation, the frequency of wasps with a matte rather than a shiny face strongly increased. Overall, our findings support the thermal melanism hypothesis and suggest that intraspecific color variation might be an adaptation to the environment of paper wasps.

Morphological variation of the widely distributed genus Stenocorse Marsh, 1968 (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Doryctinae).

Stenocorse is a monotypic genus with wide distribution and a large range of beetle hosts. We analyzed the morphological variation of 346 specimens from the USA south to Brasil. We studied 15 morphometric and 30 discrete characters using principal component (PCA) and discriminant function analyses (DFA) to assess character informativeness and the influence of geographic distribution and host source to detect differentiation. Mexican samples were studied according to location and biogeographic provinces. Specimens from Colombia were studied according to the plant where the host was recorded. Three measurements show group differentiation whereas four were redundant. Three groups of individuals were supported by continuous and discrete characters: one found in the USA, Mexico, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, a second from Mexico, and a third from Colombia and Brazil. These groups showed poor agreement with the differentiation of its common beetle host populations. This could be a consequence of the large number of sympatric host species feeding on a large number of plant species. This research shed light on other sources of evidence for building a sound taxonomy for Stenocorse.

Taxonomic synopsis of Notiospathius Matthews & Marsh, 1973 (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) from Colombia.

Notiospathius Matthews & Marsh, 1973 is the second most diverse genus of Doryctinae in the Neotropical region, however, in Colombia only two species have been reported and no studies on the diversity of the genus have been conducted. We present a taxonomic synopsis of the genus from Colombia. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA) allowed the taxonomic evaluation of morphometric characters used by other authors and those proposed in the present study to differentiate the species. Forty seven of 104 characters studied are useful to discriminate the species. Twenty three species are reported. The following new records for Colombia are: Notiospathius angustus Marsh, 2002; N. badius Marsh, 2002; N. bicolor Marsh, 2002; N. ninae Marsh, 2002; N. rugonotum Marsh, 2002; N. shawi Marsh, 2002; N. tinctipennis (Cameron, 1887) and N. venezuelae López-Estrada & Zaldívar-Riverón, 2012. The following 14 new species are described: N. alejandroi sp. nov., N. amazonensis sp. nov., N. carmenae sp. nov., N. cundinamarcensis sp. nov., N. farallonensis sp. nov., N. julianoi sp. nov., N. magdalenensis sp. nov., N. marshi sp. nov., N. payae sp. nov., N. putumayensis sp. nov., N. quimbayensis sp. nov., N. tayronensis sp. nov., N. utriae sp. nov., N. vallensis sp. nov. Notiospathius ugaldei Marsh, 2002 is the junior synonym of N. columbianus (Enderlein, 1912); Notiospathius mariachi Reséndiz-Flores, Nunes and Zaldívar-Riverón, 2014 is the junior synonym of N. carolinae (Marsh, 2002); and N. chinanteco Reséndiz-Flores, Nunes and Zaldívar-Riverón, 2014 is the junior synonym of N. rugonotum Marsh, 2002. A comprehensive taxonomic key with illustrations is presented.

A new species of Huarpea Pate, 1947 from Colombia and redescription of H. wagneriella (du Buysson, 1904) (Hymenoptera: Sapygidae).

Huarpea colombiana sp. nov. from Colombia (Meta) is described and illustrated. This is the first record of the family Sapygidae for Colombia and northern South America. Huarpea wagneriella (du Buysson, 1904) is redescribed. An updated key to Neotropical genera and species of Sapygidae is given.

Uncovering head gland diversity in neotropical Polistinae wasps (Hymenoptera, Vespidae): comparative analysis and description of new glands.

Exocrine glands are involved in several wasp colony activities; however, the number of known glands in the Vespidae is rather low when compared to other social insect groups. The aim of this study is to survey the head of Neotropical social wasps and to provide a detailed comparative study of the glands found in the Polistinae. A total of 33 species distributed over 13 genera were studied with serial histological sections of the head, excluding the labiomaxillary complex. Additionally, the exoskeleton was explored using scanning electron microscopy looking for associated modifications. A total of eleven exocrine glands were observed, five are structures recorded for the first time for the Hymenoptera, three are new records for the Polistinae and three are previously known organs. The glands studied are: ocellar gland I, ocellar gland II, periocular gland, subantennal gland, hypopharyngeal gland, clypeal gland, posterobasal genal gland, ectal mandibular gland, mesal mandibular gland, intramandibular gland I, and intramandibular gland II. The widespread distribution of most of these glands suggests an origin prior to the evolution of the Polistinae. Our results highlight the importance of detailed morphological studies to unveil the significance of chemical communication in one of the most characteristic groups of social animals.

An illustrated key to Neotropical species of the genus Meteorus Haliday (Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Euphorinae).

A comprehensive key for 75 species of Meteorus distributed across 15 Neotropical countries is presented. Eleven new species from Bolivia, Costa Rica and Ecuador are described: Meteorusalbistigma, Meteoruscarolae, Meteoruseurysaccavorus, Meteorusfallacavus, Meteorusflavistigma, Meteorushaimowitzi, Meteorusmagnoculus, Meteorusmartinezi, Meteorusmicrocavus, Meteorusnoctuivorus and Meteorusorion. Expanded range distributions are recorded for Meteorusandreae, Meteorusfarallonensis, Meteorusguineverae, Meteorusjerodi, Meteoruskraussi, Meteoruspapiliovorus and Meteorusquimbayensis. The host of Meteorusjerodi is reported for the first time: a noctuid larva feeding on Asteraceae. Meteoruspapiliovorus is recorded attacking Papilionidae larvae in Ecuador, therefore displaying a similar host family preference as formerly documented from Costa Rica and Colombia.

A mandible arresting system in neotropical social wasps (Vespidae; Polistinae): structural diversity within homogeneous functionality.

Microtrichia are epidermal protuberances that may serve as temporary adhesive devices. Several insects possess these structures; however, they have not previously been reported in social wasps. With scanning electron microscopy, we characterize the shape and abundance of microtrichia in ten species of social wasps (Vespidae: Polistinae) and three species of related taxa (Vespidae: Eumeninae, Pompilidae, and Scoliidae). Semi-thin sections of the head of Leipomeles spilogastra and Apoica albimacula were also studied. We found microtrichia on a thin, flexible membrane connected to the mandible in all the Vespidae specimens. The flexible membrane can be divided into three regions: the basal region that covers the mandibular mesial emargination, the medial region located around the height of the mandibular condyles, and the distal region that appears anterior to the apodeme folding. Basal and distal regions of the membrane are extensively covered by microtrichia while the medial region has either less microtrichia or is entirely devoid of them. The shape and density of the microtrichia differed between species, and these traits are unrelated with nest material construction or phylogenetic closeness. We propose that the microtrichial membrane described is a passive mechanism to keep the wasps' mandibles retracted through a mechanical interlocking system. It is possible that this energy-saving mechanism is present in other mandibulate insects.

Altitudinal distribution and body resource allocation in a high mountain social wasp (Hymenoptera: Vespidae).

Jame's rule proposes a direct relationship between body size and altitude. There are several studies about this rule; however, few studies analyze proportional changes in body parts along gradients. The morphological variation of Agelaia pallipes (Olivier) in five sites along an altitudinal gradient (2600-3380 m) in the Santuario de Iguaque, Colombia, were studied in order to test whether or not the species follows Jame's rule, and whether body parts follow a homogeneous variation. Body variation analysis was conducted through multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and the relationship between altitude and each morphometric measurement was studied through regression analyses. The MANOVA indicated significant differences among sites. An increase in altitude leads to a reduction in body size, especially in hind femur length and head width. However, measurements linked to flight such as mesosoma height, mesoscutum width, and fore wing size showed a reverse tendency. Possibly all described changes are consequence of both reduction on food availability and lower atmospheric pressure. The low temperature of high areas may strongly limit foraging and thus food availability. Lower atmospheric pressure reduces flight potential and may result in an increase in size of both wings and flight muscles. This paper underscores the need to study in detail the changes in body proportions in species with wide distribution ranges in latitude and altitude.

Altitudinal distribution and body resource allocation in a High Mountain social wasp (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)

Jame's rule proposes a direct relationship between body size and altitude. There are several studies about this rule; however, few studies analyze proportional changes in body parts along gradients. The morphological variation of Agelaia pallipes (Olivier) in five sites along an altitudinal gradient (2600-3380 m) in the Santuario de Iguaque, Colombia, were studied in order to test whether or not the species follows Jame's rule, and whether body parts follow a homogeneous variation. Body variation analysis was conducted through multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and the relationship between altitude and each morphometric measurement was studied through regression analyses. The MANOVA indicated significant differences among sites. An increase in altitude leads to a reduction in body size, especially in hind femur length and head width. However, measurements linked to flight such as mesosoma height, mesoscutum width, and fore wing size showed a reverse tendency. Possibly all described changes are consequence of both reduction on food availability and lower atmospheric pressure. The low temperature of high areas may strongly limit foraging and thus food availability. Lower atmospheric pressure reduces flight potential and may result in an increase in size of both wings and flight muscles. This paper underscores the need to study in detail the changes in body proportions in species with wide distribution ranges in latitude and altitude.

A regra de Jame propõe uma relação direta entre o tamanho do corpo e a altitude. Muitos estudos são relacionados a essa regra; no entanto, poucos analisam as mudanças proporcionais em partes do corpo ao longo de gradientes. Foi estudada a variação morfológica em Agelaia pallipes (Olivier) em cinco faixas altitudinais (2600-3380 m), no Santuario de Iguaque (Colombia), com o objetivo de testar se a espécie segue a regra de Jame e se o tamanho de determinadas estruturas varia homogeneamente ao longo do gradiente. O efeito da altitude em estruturas foi testado com análise de variância multivariada (MANOVA), e a relação entre cada variável e altitude avaliada com análises de regressão. A MANOVA mostrou diferenças no tamanho das estruturas entre os locais. O aumento na altura conduz à redução no tamanho de corpo, especialmente no comprimento do fêmur traseiro e na largura da cabeça. No entanto, medidas de estruturas relacionadas ao vôo, tais como o comprimento do mesosoma, largura do mesoscutum, e ainda, tamanho da asa anterior, apresentam tendência inversa. É possível que todas as mudanças sejam conseqüência da redução de alimento e da diminuição da pressão atmosférica. A temperatura baixa das altitudes maiores pode limitar o forrageamento e, portanto, os recursos. A baixa pressão atmosférica torna o vôo mais difícil e pode resultar no aumento do tamanho das asas e dos músculos do vôo. Este trabalho enfatiza a necessidade de estudos relacionados a mudanças nas proporções corporais em espécie com amplas distribuições, latitudinal e altitudinal.