Does obesity complicate regional anesthesia and result in longer decision to delivery time for emergency cesarean section?

BACKGROUND: Maternal obesity can cause problems with anesthesia and surgery which may be reflected in emergency cesarean sections (CS) as an increased decision-to-delivery interval (DDI). AIM: To study the association of elevated maternal BMI with DDI and the failure of regional anesthesia. METHODS: Eight hundred and forty-two consecutive emergency CSs during a period of 1 year in a tertiary hospital were studied retrospectively. DDIs were analyzed in Crash and < 30-min urgency categories (n = 528), while the time required to establish regional anesthesia and its success were analyzed for all emergency CS cases. RESULTS: The urgency distribution of the CSs was 11%, 52%, and 37% in Crash, < 30-min, and > 30-min urgency categories respectively. Increased BMI was associated with longer DDI time in the < 30-min urgency category (33(13-176) vs. 38(18-118) min; P < 0.05 for BMI < 30 and > 35 group respectively). Regional anesthesia failures (new regional anesthesia, conversion to general anesthesia, or complaint of pain during surgery) took place in 3.7%, 6.8%, and 8.5% in the BMI < 30, 30-35, and > 35 groups respectively (P = 0.021). Epidural top-up resulted in shorter DDI and time delay between arrival at the operating room and skin incision across all urgency and BMI groups than combined spinal epidural (CSE) anesthesia. CONCLUSION: Higher BMI was associated with longer DDI and more regional anesthesia failures. Epidural top-up was faster than CSE for establishing CS anesthesia.

Continuous wound infusion with ropivacaine fails to provide adequate analgesia after caesarean section.

BACKGROUND: Continuous wound infusion with local anaesthetic has been used in post-caesarean pain management with conflicting results. We carried out a study comparing three groups: continuous ropivacaine wound infusion, intrathecal morphine with saline wound infusion and saline wound infusion only. METHODS: Sixty-six women undergoing elective caesarean section under combined spinal-epidural anaesthesia were randomly allocated to receive intrathecal morphine with saline wound infusion or 48 h continuous wound infusion with either ropivacaine or saline. All parturients received oral ketoprofen and intravenous oxycodone patient-controlled analgesia. Consumption of oxycodone, visual analogue scale pain scores (0-10 cm), patient satisfaction, side effects and recovery parameters were recorded for 48 h in a double-blind manner. RESULTS: Continuous wound infusion with ropivacaine failed to reduce oxycodone consumption or pain scores compared with saline control. In the first 24 h intrathecal morphine reduced mean oxycodone consumption compared to the ropivacaine wound infusion group (26 mg vs. 48 mg, P=0.007) and saline wound infusion group (26 mg vs. 45 mg, P=0.021). The first 24-h mean pain score was also lower in the intrathecal morphine group vs. the saline wound infusion group (1.3 vs. 2.2, P=0.021). Pain scores were not significantly different between intrathecal morphine and ropivacaine wound infusion groups. Pruritus was more common with intrathecal morphine. CONCLUSION: Compared to saline control, continuous wound infusion with ropivacaine failed to reduce the use of intravenous oxycodone patient-controlled analgesia or pain scores. Intrathecal morphine decreased oxycodone consumption by 46% in the first 24 h after surgery when compared to continuous ropivacaine wound infusion.

Changes in serum concentrations of soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 after pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is the most potent stimulator of angiogenesis. It mediates its activity through two membrane-bound receptors, VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2, both expressed in the placenta. Beginning in early pregnancy, the soluble form of the first, sVEGFR-1, binds and inhibits most of the biological actions of circulating VEGF. After delivery, it disappears from the maternal circulation. METHODS: We determined the biological elimination rate of endogenous sVEGFR-1 after term pregnancy in serial venous samples obtained during and after elective Caesarean sections (n=8), and we demonstrated the relationship between serum sVEGFR-1 and VEGF after mid-trimester legal termination of pregnancy (n = 5), by analysing their concentrations using immunoassays (ELISA). RESULTS: The disappearance of sVEGFR-1 from circulation after Caesarean delivery was biphasic with a rapid half-life of 3.4 h (2.2-7.5 h; median, range) and a slow one of 29 h (17-94 h). After mid-trimester legal termination of pregnancy the sVEGFR-1 concentrations decreased and those of free VEGF simultaneously increased with a highly significant negative correlation with each other (r = -0.90, P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: The disappearance of endogenous sVEGFR-1 after pregnancy is biphasic, and it is associated with a simultaneous increase in free VEGF concentrations.

Persistent pain after caesarean section and vaginal birth: a cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Although persistent pain has been described to occur after various types of surgery, little is known about this entity following caesarean section or vaginal birth. We sought to examine the association between mode of delivery and development of persistent pain, as well as the nature and intensity of the pain. METHODS: A questionnaire was sent to 600 consecutive Finnish-speaking women within one year of their giving birth. The survey recorded the women's health history, obstetric history, previous pain, details of the caesarean section or vaginal birth, and a description of their pain, if present. RESULTS: Persistent pain one year after delivery was significantly more common after caesarean section (42/229, 18%) than after vaginal birth (20/209, 10%: P=0.011, OR 2.1 with 95% CI 1.2-3.7). The persistent pain was mild in 55% of the patients in both groups, and intense or unbearable for four caesarean sections and six vaginal births. Persistent pain was significantly more common in women with previous pain (P=0.013), previous back pain (P=0.016), and any chronic disease (P=0.016). The women with persistent pain recalled significantly more pain on the day after caesarean section (P=0.004) and vaginal birth (P=0.001) than those who did not report persistent pain. CONCLUSION: Persistent pain is more common one year after a caesarean section than after vaginal birth. A history of previous pain and pain on the day after delivery correlated with persistent pain.

Intravenous remifentanil vs. epidural levobupivacaine with fentanyl for pain relief in early labour: a randomised, controlled, double-blinded study.

BACKGROUND: We hypothesised that intravenous patient-controlled analgesia (IV PCA) with remifentanil could provide as satisfactory pain relief for labour as epidural analgesia. METHODS: Fifty-two parturients with singleton uncomplicated pregnancies were randomised to receive either IV PCA with remifentanil or epidural analgesia with 20 ml levobupivacaine 0.625 mg/ml and fentanyl 2 microg/ml in saline. The PCA dose of remifentanil was given over 1 min with a lockout time of 1 min. The dose was increased starting from the bolus of 0.1 microg/kg and following a dose escalation scheme up until the individual-effective dose was reached. The parturients assessed contraction pain (0-10), pain relief (0-4), sedation and nausea during 60 min. RESULTS: Forty-five parturients were included in the analysis. The median cervical opening was 4 cm before the study and 7 cm after the study. The median pain scores were 7.3 and 5.2 during remifentanil and epidural analgesia, respectively (P=0.009). The median pain relief scores were 2.5 and 2.8 (P=0.17). There was no difference between the groups in the proportion of parturients who discontinued due to ineffective analgesia, nor in the proportion of parturients who would have liked to continue the given medication at the end of the study. Sedation and low haemoglobin oxygen saturation were observed more often during remifentanil analgesia. Foetal heart rate tracing abnormalities were as common in both groups. CONCLUSIONS: In terms of pain scores, epidural analgesia is superior to that provided by IV remifentanil. However, there was no difference in the pain relief scores between the treatments.

Patient-controlled epidural technique improves analgesia for labor but increases cesarean delivery rate compared with the intermittent bolus technique.

BACKGROUND: We tested the hypothesis that patient-controlled epidural analgesia for labor (PCEA) provides better analgesia and satisfaction than the intermittent bolus technique (bolus) without affecting the mode of delivery. METHODS: We randomized 187 parturients to receive labor analgesia using either the PCEA or bolus technique. The PCEA group received a starting bolus of 14 mg of bupivacaine and 60 micro g of fentanyl in a 15-ml volume, followed by a background infusion (bupivacaine 0.08% and fentanyl 2 microg ml(-1)) 5 ml h(-1) with a 5-ml bolus and 15-min lock-out interval. The bolus group received boluses of 20 mg of bupivacaine and 75 micro g of fentanyl in a 15-ml volume. RESULTS: Parturients in the PCEA group had significantly (P < 0.05-0.01) less pain during the first and second stages of labor. There was no difference in the spontaneous delivery rate between the groups, but the cesarean delivery rate was significantly (P < 0.05) higher (16.3% vs. 6.7%) in the PCEA group than in the bolus group. Bupivacaine consumption was significantly (P < 0.01) higher (11.2 mg h(-1) vs. 9.6 mg h(-1)) and the second stage of labor was significantly (P < 0.01) longer (70 min vs. 54 min) in the PCEA group than in the bolus group. Patient satisfaction was equally good in both groups. CONCLUSION: The PCEA technique provided better pain relief. This was associated with higher bupivacaine consumption, prolongation of the second stage of labor, and an increased rate of cesarean section.

A double-blinded, randomized comparison of intrathecal and epidural morphine for elective cesarean delivery.

UNLABELLED: We randomized 150 parturients into a double-blinded trial to receive intrathecal (IT) 100 microg (IT 100 group) or 200 microg (IT 200 group) or epidural 3 mg (Epidural group) of morphine for elective cesarean delivery with a combined spinal/epidural technique. The patients additionally received ketoprofen 300 mg/d. Postoperative pain relief and side effects were registered every 3 h up to 24 h, and all patients were interviewed on the first postoperative day. Pain control was equally good, but the parturients in the IT 100 group requested rescue analgesics more often compared with the other groups (P < 0.05). Itching was a common complaint and was reported by 74% of the parturients in the Epidural group and 65% and 91% in the IT 100 and IT 200 groups, respectively (P < 0.01). Medication for itching was requested by 44%, 24%, and 45% of the patients, respectively (P < 0.05). There was no difference in postoperative nausea or vomiting. The pain relief was perceived as good by >90% of the patients in all groups. In conclusion, because of the decreased incidence of and lesser requirements of medication for itching, IT morphine 100 microg with ketoprofen is recommended in cesarean deliveries. Rescue analgesics nevertheless need to be prescribed. IMPLICATIONS: Spinal morphine is an effective analgesic after cesarean delivery, but it has several side effects. The purpose of this study was to compare the prevalence of side effects and the level of analgesia of epidural morphine with two different doses of spinal morphine after elective cesarean delivery. Although rescue analgesics may be required, intrathecal morphine 100 microg is suggested for postoperative analgesia after cesarean delivery.

Stereoselective pharmacokinetics of ketorolac in children, adolescents and adults.

BACKGROUND: Previous pharmacokinetic studies on racemic ketorolac using nonstereoselective analytical methods have indicated that the plasma clearance of ketorolac is higher and the volume of distribution greater in children than in adults. The aim of this study was to study the stereoselective pharmacokinetics of racemic ketorolac in children, adolescents and adults. METHODS: 18 children (6-11 yrs), 18 adolescents (12-17 yrs) and 18 adults (18-44 yrs) participated in the study. At the end of eye surgery they were given intravenous racemic ketorolac tromethamine 0.5 mg/kg. Plasma samples were assayed for (R)- and (S)-ketorolac with high-pressure liquid chromatography. Clearance (CL), volume of distribution at steady state (Vss) and elimination (Vz) and elimination half-life (t1/2,z) were calculated with standard methods. Incidence of side-effects were recorded. RESULTS: CL, Vss, Vz and t1/2,z were higher (P<0.05) for (S)-ketorolac than for the (R)-enantiomer. Vss of the active (S)-enantiomer was higher in children than in adolescents (P<0.05) and adults (P<0.001) but the values for CL were similar. Due to the higher volume of distribution, t1/2,z was also higher in children than in adults. The pharmacokinetics of the (R)-enantiomer were essentially unaffected by age. CONCLUSION: On a pharmacokinetic basis, the maintenance dose requirements of ketorolac are similar in children, adolescents and adults.

Reversal of neuromuscular blockade with neostigmine has no effect on the incidence or severity of postoperative nausea and vomiting.

UNLABELLED: We performed this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study to determine whether reversal of neuromuscular block with neostigmine increases the incidence and severity of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV). We studied 162 women undergoing abdominal hysterectomy and randomly allocated them into two groups. In Group A, neuromuscular block produced with mivacurium was antagonized with neostigmine 2.0 mg and glycopyrrolate 0.4 mg intravenously, whereas Group B received no drugs to facilitate antagonism of blockade. The incidence and severity of PONV was assessed up to 27 h after the operation. There was no difference in PONV between the groups (in Group A 35% had nausea and 33% vomited; in Group B 28% nauseated and 40% vomited) or in the amount of antiemetics given. We had a 75% chance to find a 30% difference in PONV. We conclude that the administration of neostigmine and glycopyrrolate at the end of anesthesia to reverse neuromuscular block does not increase the incidence or severity of PONV. IMPLICATIONS: Neostigmine may increase postoperative nausea and vomiting. In this study, omission of reversal of neuromuscular block with neostigmine failed to decrease the incidence or severity of postoperative nausea and vomiting.

Orbicular muscle akinesia in regional ophthalmic anaesthesia with pH-adjusted bupivacaine: effects of hyaluronidase and epinephrine.

The success rate and duration of lid akinesia after adding hyaluronidase and/or epinephrine to pH-adjusted bupivacaine was examined in a double-blind fashion in patients undergoing cataract surgery under local anaesthesia. A two-injection-site technique was used. For globe akinesia all patients (n = 120) received an inferolateral intraconal injection (3 ml) of pH-adjusted bupivacaine 0.75% and hyaluronidase. Lid akinesia was obtained with a medial extraconal injection (3.5 ml) of alkalinized bupivacaine with or without an adjunct. The patients were randomized to four groups as follows: a medial injection of plain bupivacaine (n = 31), with added hyaluronidase (n = 30), with added epinephrine (n = 29) or with both epinephrine and hyaluronidase (n = 30). The final solutions had a pH of 6.7. Lid akinesia was supplemented with periosteal injections if needed. The degree of akinesia from clinical assessment was graded from 0-2 and also measured with electromyography at ten minute intervals for 30 min after surgery, and three hours after the block. The least satisfactory result (P < 0.01) and shortest duration of the lid block (P < 0.05) was obtained with plain pH-adjusted bupivacaine. No differences in the success rate or duration of the block among the other groups were seen. The duration of the block was longer in the epinephrine groups than in the two other groups (P < 0.01) and longer in the epinephrine and hyaluronidase group than in the group receiving only hyaluronidase (P < 0.05). We conclude that the best initial results and longest duration of blocks were shown in the groups receiving epinephrine or epinephrine and hyaluronidase.

Premedication with sublingual triazolam compared with oral diazepam.

The clinical effects of a new administration form of triazolam, 0.2 mg sublingual (sl) tablet, were compared with those of a 10 mg tablet of diazepam in a double-blind study, in 100 ASA I-II patients scheduled for ophthalmic surgery under local anaesthesia. The sedative and anxiolytic effects of the study drugs were followed at 15 min intervals by plotting the patient's assessments on a visual analogue scale and by a trained observer. The onset of sedative and anxiolytic effect was similar. At 75 min after premedication and after the operation triazolam 0.2 mg caused deeper sedation than diazepam 10 mg according to the observer (P < 0.001, P < 0.01) and according to the patient (P < 0.01, P < 0.05). Ten patients (20%) in the triazolam group and one in the diazepam group were assessed to be too sedated during the operation. All these patients were 61-70 yr old. The study drugs resulted in equal reduction of anxiety during the preoperative period. Both premedications provided good patient comfort but caused total amnesia only to one patient in each group. Neither caused any severe cardiorespiratory or other side effects. It is concluded that 0.2 mg triazolam sl produces deeper sedation than 10 mg oral diazepam. For elderly patients this dose is excessive for intraocular surgery.

Comparison of two needle lengths in regional ophthalmic anesthesia with etidocaine and hyaluronidase.

The effect of needle length on the efficacy of regional ophthalmic anesthesia in conjunction with cataract surgery was studied in 97 patients using a two-site injection technique. The local anesthetic used was etidocaine 1.5% with hyaluronidase. In 48 patients, the anesthetic was administered inferolaterally with a 22-millimeter needle, and in the other 49 patients, with a 31-millimeter needle. Every patient had a medial injection with a 12-millimeter needle to achieve lid akinesia and to complete the globe akinesia. At 5 minutes, lid akinesia was considered better in the 22-millimeter needle group (P < .005). After one supplemental dose, when necessary, complete globe akinesia was achieved at 15 minutes significantly more often (94% vs 79%) in the 31-millimeter needle group (P < .05). Lid akinesia in the two groups was identical at that time. Eight patients in the short-needle group and three in the long-needle group experienced some pain during surgery. Throughout the study, the required intraorbital anesthetic volumes were smaller in the 31-millimeter needle group. We recommend the use of a 31-millimeter needle inferolaterally in combination with a 12-millimeter needle medially to achieve satisfactory regional anesthesia for cataract surgery.

Hyaluronidase improves regional ophthalmic anaesthesia with etidocaine.

The effect of adding hyaluronidase to regional ophthalmic anaesthesia with etidocaine 1.5% was examined. Two studies were performed in a double-blind fashion. In Study #1, 70 patients were given peribulbar anaesthesia with etidocaine either with or without hyaluronidase (7.5 IU.ml-1) using a standard intraorbital injection and separate lid injections. The block was supplemented as needed. Lower intraorbital volumes (6.4 +/- 2.2 ml vs 8.2 +/- 2.3 ml, P < 0.01) and improved scores for globe akinesia (P < 0.01), lid akinesia (P < 0.01) and analgesia (P < 0.05) were recorded in the hyaluronidase group than in the plain etidocaine group. In Study #2, 80 patients were randomized to receive etidocaine and hyaluronidase either at a concentration of 7.5 IU.ml-1 or 15 IU.ml-1 using a two-injection-site technique. No differences were noted in the volumes of local anaesthetics required or in the success rates between the two groups. It was concluded that the addition of hyaluronidase to etidocaine decreases the volume needed and improves the quality of block compared with plain etidocaine. Doubling the dose of hyaluronidase does not improve the effectiveness of block.