Comparative Pharmacology of a Bis-Pivaloyloxymethyl Phosphonate Prodrug Inhibitor of Enolase after Oral and Parenteral Administration.

Metabolically labile prodrugs can experience stark differences in catabolism incurred by the chosen route of administration. This is especially true for phosph(on)ate prodrugs, in which successive promoiety removal transforms a lipophilic molecule into increasingly polar compounds. We previously described a phosphonate inhibitor of enolase (HEX) and its bis-pivaloyloxymethyl ester prodrug (POMHEX) capable of eliciting strong tumor regression in a murine model of enolase 1 (ENO1)-deleted glioblastoma following parenteral administration. Here, we characterize the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of these enolase inhibitors in vitro and in vivo after oral and parenteral administration. In support of the historical function of lipophilic prodrugs, the bis-POM prodrug significantly improves cell permeability of and rapid hydrolysis to the parent phosphonate, resulting in rapid intracellular loading of peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro and in vivo. We observe the influence of intracellular trapping in vivo on divergent pharmacokinetic profiles of POMHEX and its metabolites after oral and parenteral administration. This is a clear demonstration of the tissue reservoir effect hypothesized to explain phosph(on)ate prodrug pharmacokinetics but has heretofore not been explicitly demonstrated.

Peripheral blood monocytes as a therapeutic target for marrow stromal cells in stroke patients.

Background: Systemic administration of marrow stromal cells (MSCs) leads to the release of a broad range of factors mediating recovery in rodent stroke models. The release of these factors could depend on the various cell types within the peripheral blood as they contact systemically administered MSCs. In this study, we assessed the immunomodulatory interactions of MSCs with peripheral blood derived monocytes (Mϕ) collected from acute stroke patients. Methods: Peripheral blood from stroke patients was collected at 5-7 days (N = 5) after symptom onset and from age-matched healthy controls (N = 5) using mononuclear cell preparation (CPT) tubes. After processing, plasma and other cellular fractions were removed, and Mϕ were isolated from the mononuclear fraction using CD14 microbeads. Mϕ were then either cultured alone or co-cultured with MSCs in a trans-well cell-culture system. Secretomes were analyzed after 24 h of co-cultures using a MAGPIX reader. Results: Our results show that there is a higher release of IFN-γ and IL-10 from monocytes isolated from peripheral blood at day 5-7 after stroke compared with monocytes from healthy controls. In trans-well co-cultures of MSCs and monocytes isolated from stroke patients, we found statistically significant increased levels of IL-4 and MCP-1, and decreased levels of IL-6, IL-1ß, and TNF-α. Addition of MSCs to monocytes increased the secretions of Fractalkine, IL-6, and MCP-1, while the secretions of TNF-α decreased, as compared to the secretions from monocytes alone. When MSCs were added to monocytes from stroke patients, they decreased the levels of IL-1ß, and increased the levels of IL-10 significantly more as compared to when they were added to monocytes from control patients. Conclusion: The systemic circulation of stroke patients may differentially interact with MSCs to release soluble factors integral to their paracrine mechanisms of benefit. Our study finds that the effect of MSCs on Mϕ is different on those derived from stroke patients blood as compared to healthy controls. These findings suggest immunomodulation of peripheral immune cells as a therapeutic target for MSCs in patients with acute stroke.

Prodrugs of a 1-Hydroxy-2-oxopiperidin-3-yl Phosphonate Enolase Inhibitor for the Treatment of ENO1-Deleted Cancers.

Cancers harboring homozygous deletion of the glycolytic enzyme enolase 1 (ENO1) are selectively vulnerable to inhibition of the paralogous isoform, enolase 2 (ENO2). A previous work described the sustained tumor regression activities of a substrate-competitive phosphonate inhibitor of ENO2, 1-hydroxy-2-oxopiperidin-3-yl phosphonate (HEX) (5), and its bis-pivaloyoxymethyl prodrug, POMHEX (6), in an ENO1-deleted intracranial orthotopic xenograft model of glioblastoma [Nature Metabolism 2020, 2, 1423-1426]. Due to poor pharmacokinetics of bis-ester prodrugs, this study was undertaken to identify potential non-esterase prodrugs for further development. Whereas phosphonoamidate esters were efficiently bioactivated in ENO1-deleted glioma cells, McGuigan prodrugs were not. Other strategies, including cycloSal and lipid prodrugs of 5, exhibited low micromolar IC50 values in ENO1-deleted glioma cells and improved stability in human serum over 6. The activity of select prodrugs was also probed using the NCI-60 cell line screen, supporting its use to examine the relationship between prodrugs and cell line-dependent bioactivation.

Homozygous MTAP deletion in primary human glioblastoma is not associated with elevation of methylthioadenosine.

Homozygous deletion of methylthioadenosine phosphorylase (MTAP) in cancers such as glioblastoma represents a potentially targetable vulnerability. Homozygous MTAP-deleted cell lines in culture show elevation of MTAP's substrate metabolite, methylthioadenosine (MTA). High levels of MTA inhibit protein arginine methyltransferase 5 (PRMT5), which sensitizes MTAP-deleted cells to PRMT5 and methionine adenosyltransferase 2A (MAT2A) inhibition. While this concept has been extensively corroborated in vitro, the clinical relevance relies on exhibiting significant MTA accumulation in human glioblastoma. In this work, using comprehensive metabolomic profiling, we show that MTA secreted by MTAP-deleted cells in vitro results in high levels of extracellular MTA. We further demonstrate that homozygous MTAP-deleted primary glioblastoma tumors do not significantly accumulate MTA in vivo due to metabolism of MTA by MTAP-expressing stroma. These findings highlight metabolic discrepancies between in vitro models and primary human tumors that must be considered when developing strategies for precision therapies targeting glioblastoma with homozygous MTAP deletion.

A Combination of Atorvastatin and Aspirin Enhances the Pro-Regenerative Interactions of Marrow Stromal Cells and Stroke-Derived Monocytes In Vitro.

Background and Purpose: Marrow stromal cells (MSCs) are being tested in clinical trials for stroke patients. MSCs appear to promote recovery through secretomes that promote modulation of immune cells, including myeloid phagocytes. Many stroke patients have comorbidities such as metabolic syndrome, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and diabetes for which they are prescribed medications that might affect the function of MSCs and monocytes (Mo) when they are administered in stroke patients. We studied the effects of the two most commonly prescribed stroke medications, statin and statin plus aspirin, on the secretomes of MSCs and their modulation of Mo derived from stroke patients. Methods: Human MSCs, Mo and their co-cultures were exposed to atorvastatin or atorvastatin plus aspirin followed by secretome analysis at 24 h. Monocytes were isolated from healthy controls as well as stroke patients with NIHSS ranging from 11 to 20. Secretome composition was measured using multiplex immunoassay. We used MTT assay to measure proliferation of monocytes. The mixed model was used to analyze experimental data. p-values less than 0.05 were considered significant. Results: Atorvastatin and aspirin combination increased the release of IL-1RA from stroke Mo. In MSCs, atorvastatin and aspirin combination reduced the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1 and IFN-γ. Atorvastatin alone reduced the release of IL-6, IL-8 and MCP-1 from co-cultures of stroke monocytes and MSCs. Combination of atorvastatin and aspirin had additive effect on reducing the secretion of IL-6 from co-cultures of stroke Mo and MSCs. Conclusion: Atorvastatin, alone and in combination with aspirin can promote anti-inflammatory effect by modulating the secretome profile of Mo and MSCs. Our results suggest that stroke trials involving the use of intravenous MSCs should consider the effect of aspirin and atorvastatin, both of which are administered to the majority of hospitalized ischemic stroke patients.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell Derived Extracellular Vesicles for Repairing the Neurovascular Unit after Ischemic Stroke.

Ischemic stroke is a debilitating disease and one of the leading causes of long-term disability. During the early phase after ischemic stroke, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) exhibits increased permeability and disruption, leading to an influx of immune cells and inflammatory molecules that exacerbate the damage to the brain tissue. Mesenchymal stem cells have been investigated as a promising therapy to improve the recovery after ischemic stroke. The therapeutic effects imparted by MSCs are mostly paracrine. Recently, the role of extracellular vesicles released by these MSCs have been studied as possible carriers of information to the brain. This review focuses on the potential of MSC derived EVs to repair the components of the neurovascular unit (NVU) controlling the BBB, in order to promote overall recovery from stroke. Here, we review the techniques for increasing the effectiveness of MSC-based therapeutics, such as improved homing capabilities, bioengineering protein expression, modified culture conditions, and customizing the contents of EVs. Combining multiple techniques targeting NVU repair may provide the basis for improved future stroke treatment paradigms.

A meta-analysis of the global impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on stroke care & the Houston Experience.

OBJECTIVE: To review the global impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on stroke care-metrics and report data from a health system in Houston. METHODS: We performed a meta-analysis of the published literature reporting stroke admissions, intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) cases, number of thrombolysis (tPA) and thrombectomy (MT) cases, and time metrics (door to needle, DTN; and door to groin time, DTG) during the pandemic compared to prepandemic period. Within our hospital system, between January-June 2019 and January-June 2020, we compared the proportion of stroke admissions and door to tPA and MT times. RESULTS: A total of 32,640 stroke admissions from 29 studies were assessed. Compared to prepandemic period, the mean ratio of stroke admissions during the pandemic was 70.78% [95% CI, 65.02%, 76.54%], ICH cases was 83.10% [95% CI, 71.01%, 95.17%], tPA cases was 81.74% [95% CI, 72.33%, 91.16%], and MT cases was 88.63% [95% CI, 74.12%, 103.13%], whereas DTN time was 104.48% [95% CI, 95.52%, 113.44%] and DTG was 104.30% [95% CI, 81.99%, 126.61%]. In Houston, a total of 4808 cases were assessed. There was an initial drop of ~30% in cases at the pandemic onset. Compared to 2019, there was a significant reduction in mild strokes (NIHSS 1-5) [N (%), 891 (43) vs 635 (40), P = 0.02]. There were similar mean (SD) (mins) DTN [44 (17) vs 42 (17), P = 0.14] but significantly prolonged DTG times [94 (15) vs 85 (20), P = 0.005] in 2020. INTERPRETATION: The COVID-19 pandemic led to a global reduction in stroke admissions and treatment interventions and prolonged treatment time metrics.

Aurora kinase inhibition sensitizes melanoma cells to T-cell-mediated cytotoxicity.

Although immunotherapy has achieved impressive durable clinical responses, many cancers respond only temporarily or not at all to immunotherapy. To find novel, targetable mechanisms of resistance to immunotherapy, patient-derived melanoma cell lines were transduced with 576 open reading frames, or exposed to arrayed libraries of 850 bioactive compounds, prior to co-culture with autologous tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs). The synergy between the targets and TILs to induce apoptosis, and the mechanisms of inhibiting resistance to TILs were interrogated. Gene expression analyses were performed on tumor samples from patients undergoing immunotherapy for metastatic melanoma. Finally, the effect of inhibiting the top targets on the efficacy of immunotherapy was investigated in multiple preclinical models. Aurora kinase was identified as a mediator of melanoma cell resistance to T-cell-mediated cytotoxicity in both complementary screens. Aurora kinase inhibitors were validated to synergize with T-cell-mediated cytotoxicity in vitro. The Aurora kinase inhibition-mediated sensitivity to T-cell cytotoxicity was shown to be partially driven by p21-mediated induction of cellular senescence. The expression levels of Aurora kinase and related proteins were inversely correlated with immune infiltration, response to immunotherapy and survival in melanoma patients. Aurora kinase inhibition showed variable responses in combination with immunotherapy in vivo, suggesting its activity is modified by other factors in the tumor microenvironment. These data suggest that Aurora kinase inhibition enhances T-cell cytotoxicity in vitro and can potentiate antitumor immunity in vivo in some but not all settings. Further studies are required to determine the mechanism of primary resistance to this therapeutic intervention.

An enolase inhibitor for the targeted treatment of ENO1-deleted cancers.

Inhibiting glycolysis remains an aspirational approach for the treatment of cancer. We have previously identified a subset of cancers harbouring homozygous deletion of the glycolytic enzyme enolase (ENO1) that have exceptional sensitivity to inhibition of its redundant paralogue, ENO2, through a therapeutic strategy known as collateral lethality. Here, we show that a small-molecule enolase inhibitor, POMHEX, can selectively kill ENO1-deleted glioma cells at low-nanomolar concentrations and eradicate intracranial orthotopic ENO1-deleted tumours in mice at doses well-tolerated in non-human primates. Our data provide an in vivo proof of principle of the power of collateral lethality in precision oncology and demonstrate the utility of POMHEX for glycolysis inhibition with potential use across a range of therapeutic settings.

Medications for Hypertension Change the Secretome Profile from Marrow Stromal Cells and Peripheral Blood Monocytes.

Marrow stromal cells (MSCs) are in different stages of clinical trials for stroke patients. MSCs are proposed to promote recovery through the release of secretomes that modulate the function of beneficial immune cells. The majority of stroke patients have comorbidities including hypertension, for which they are prescribed antihypertensive medications that might affect the function of MSCs, when they are administered in stroke patients. Here, we studied the effects of common antihypertensive medications on the secretomes of human MSCs and their modulation of human monocytes (Mo) derived from stroke patients. MTT assay was used to assess the proliferation of MSCs after they were exposed to increased levels of antihypertensive medications. MSCs were exposed to the following medications: atenolol, captopril, and losartan. Monocytes were isolated from stroke patients with NIHSS ranging from 11 to 20 and from healthy controls. MSC-Mo cocultures were established, and a secretome profile was analyzed using the Magpix Multiplex cytokine array from Luminex technology. The linear mixed-effect model was used for statistical analysis. All analyses were performed using SAS 9.4, and p values less than 0.05 were considered significant. At clinically relevant levels, there was no change in MSC proliferation after exposure to atenolol, captopril, or losartan. Atenolol increased IL-1RA in stroke-Mo and decreased IL-8 secretion from MSCs indicating an anti-inflammatory effect of atenolol on secretomes of these cells. Captopril increased IL-8 from stroke-Mo and increased IL-6, IL-8, and MCP-1 secretions from MSCs. Captopril also increased IL-6 secretion from cocultures of stroke-Mo and MSCs indicating a strong proinflammatory effect on MSCs and their interaction with Mo. Atenolol increased the secretion of IL-8 and MCP-1 while captopril increased the secretion of IL-6 and MCP-1 from MSCs. Losartan decreased the release of IL-6 from MSCs. Losartan reduced MCP-1 and TNF-α from stroke-Mo and reduced IL-8 from cocultures of stroke-Mo and MSCs. Our results show that antihypertensive medications such as atenolol, captopril, and losartan, at concentrations comparable to doses prescribed for patients hospitalized for acute stroke, modulate the secretome profile of MSCs and their modulatory effects on target immune cells. Our results suggest that stroke trials involving the use of intravenous MSCs should consider the effect of these antihypertensive drugs administered to stroke patients.

The 3S Enantiomer Drives Enolase Inhibitory Activity in SF2312 and Its Analogues.

We recently reported that SF2312 ((1,5-dihydroxy-2-oxopyrrolidin-3-yl)phosphonic acid), a phosphonate antibiotic with a previously unknown mode of action, is a potent inhibitor of the glycolytic enzyme, Enolase. SF2312 can only be synthesized as a racemic-diastereomeric mixture. However, co-crystal structures with Enolase 2 (ENO2) have consistently shown that only the (3S,5S)-enantiomer binds to the active site. The acidity of the alpha proton at C-3, which deprotonates under mildly alkaline conditions, results in racemization; thus while the separation of four enantiomeric intermediates was achieved via chiral High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) of the fully protected intermediate, deprotection inevitably nullified enantiopurity. To prevent epimerization of the C-3, we designed and synthesized MethylSF2312, ((1,5-dihydroxy-3-methyl-2-oxopyrrolidin-3-yl)phosphonic acid), which contains a fully-substituted C-3 alpha carbon. As a racemic-diastereomeric mixture, MethylSF2312 is equipotent to SF2312 in enzymatic and cellular systems against Enolase. Chiral HPLC separation of a protected MethylSF2312 precursor resulted in the efficient separation of the four enantiomers. After deprotection and inevitable re-equilibration of the anomeric C-5, (3S)-MethylSF2312 was up to 2000-fold more potent than (3R)-MethylSF2312 in an isolated enzymatic assay. This observation strongly correlates with biological activity in both human cancer cells and bacteria for the 3S enantiomer of SF2312. Novel X-ray structures of human ENO2 with chiral and racemic MethylSF2312 show that only (3S,5S)-enantiomer occupies the active site. Enolase inhibition is thus a direct result of binding by the (3S,5S)-enantiomer of MethylSF2312. Concurrent with these results for MethylSF2312, we contend that the (3S,5S)-SF2312 is the single active enantiomer of inhibitor SF2312.

Aspirin in stroke patients modifies the immunomodulatory interactions of marrow stromal cells and monocytes.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Most stroke patients are prescribed aspirin (ASA) to adjust blood coagulability. Marrow stromal cells (MSCs) are being tested in clinical trials for stroke patients who likely are prescribed aspirin. One of the principal mechanisms of action of MSCs and ASA is modulation of the inflammatory response, including those mediated by monocytes (Mo). Thus, here we tested if aspirin can modify anti-inflammatory properties of MSCs or Mo alone, and in combination. METHODS: Mo were isolated at 24 h of stroke onset from ischemic stroke patients with NIHSS ranging from 11 to 20 or from healthy controls. Human bone marrow-derived MSCs from healthy subjects were used at passage 3. Mo, MSCs, and MSCs-Mo co-cultures were exposed to ASA at clinically relevant doses. The secretome profile of inflammatory mediators was measured using Magpix multiplex cytokine array. Viability was measured using MTT assay. Linear mixed effect model was used for statistical analysis. RESULTS: Overall Mo from control subjects exposed to ASA showed increased secretion of IL-1RA, IL-8, MCP-1, and TNF-α and Mo from stroke patients showed greater release of IL-1RA and MCP-1. In MSCs-Mo co-cultures, ASA added to co-cultures of control Mo reduced fractalkine secretion while it increased the fractalkine secretion when added to Mo from stroke patients. In addition, in co-cultures independent of Mo origin, ASA reduced IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1, and TNF-α. CONCLUSIONS: Aspirin in acute stroke patients may modulate the secretome profile of Mo and MSCs, thus potentially modulating immune and inflammatory responses associated with stroke. Our results suggest that stroke trials involving the use of intravenous MSCs should consider the effect of aspirin as a confounding factor.

World-Wide Efficacy of Bone Marrow Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells in Preclinical Ischemic Stroke Models: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Background: Following extensive, positive results in pre-clinical experiments, Bone Marrow Derived-Mesenchymal Stromal Cells (BM-MSCs) are now being tested as a novel therapy for ischemic stroke in ongoing clinical trials. However, multiple critical questions relating to their translational application remain to be clarified. We performed a comprehensive, systematic review and meta-analysis of pre-clinical studies to evaluate the efficacy of BM-MSCs on functional outcomes after ischemic stroke, as well as the independent role of translational factors on their effect size. Methods: We systematically reviewed the literature and identified articles using BM-MSCs in animal models of focal ischemic stroke. After abstraction of all relevant data, we performed a meta-analysis to estimate the combined effect size of behavioral endpoints after BM-MSC administration. To describe the effect size across many behavioral outcomes, we divided these outcomes into four categories: (1) Composite scores, (2) Motor Tests, (3) Sensorimotor Tests, and (4) Cognitive Tests. We also performed a meta-regression analysis for measuring the effect of individual characteristics of BM-MSC administration on the effect size. Results: Our results from 141 articles indicate a significant beneficial effect on composite, motor, and sensorimotor outcomes after treatment with BM-MSCs compared to control groups. We found no major differences in treatment effect based on delivery route, dose, fresh vs. frozen preparation, or passage number. There were no consistent findings supporting a difference in treatment effect based on time windows from acute periods (0-6 h) vs. later windows (2-7 days). Furthermore, these positive treatment effects on functional outcome were consistent across different labs in different parts of the world as well as over the last 18 years. There was a negative correlation between publication year and impact factor. Conclusions: Our results show worldwide efficacy of BM-MSCs in improving functional outcomes in pre-clinical animal models of stroke and support testing these cells in clinical trials in various ranges of time windows using different delivery routes. The continued growing number of publications showing functional benefit of BM-MSCs are now adding limited value to an oversaturated literature spanning 18 years. Researchers should focus on identifying definitive mechanisms on how BM-MSCs lead to benefit in stroke models.

Ongoing Secondary Degeneration of the Limbic System in Patients With Ischemic Stroke: A Longitudinal MRI Study.

Purpose: Ongoing post-stroke structural degeneration and neuronal loss preceding neuropsychological symptoms such as cognitive decline and depression are poorly understood. Various substructures of the limbic system have been linked to cognitive impairment. In this longitudinal study, we investigated the post-stroke macro- and micro-structural integrity of the limbic system using structural and diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging. Materials and Methods: Nineteen ischemic stroke patients (11 men, 8 women, average age 53.4 ± 12.3, range 18-75 years), with lesions remote from the limbic system, were serially imaged three times over 1 year. Structural and diffusion-tensor images (DTI) were obtained on a 3.0 T MRI system. The cortical thickness, subcortical volume, mean diffusivity (MD), and fractional anisotropy (FA) were measured in eight different regions of the limbic system. The National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) was used for clinical assessment. A mixed model for multiple factors was used for statistical analysis, and p-values <0.05 was considered significant. Results: All patients demonstrated improved NIHSS values over time. The ipsilesional subcortical volumes of the thalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala significantly decreased (p < 0.05) and MD significantly increased (p < 0.05). The ipsilesional cortical thickness of the entorhinal and perirhinal cortices was significantly smaller than the contralesional hemisphere at 12 months (p < 0.05). The cortical thickness of the cingulate gyrus at 12 months was significantly decreased at the caudal and isthmus regions as compared to the 1 month assessment (p < 0.05). The cingulum fibers had elevated MD at the ipsilesional caudal-anterior and posterior regions compared to the corresponding contralesional regions. Conclusion: Despite the decreasing NIHSS scores, we found ongoing unilateral neuronal loss/secondary degeneration in the limbic system, irrespective of the lesion location. These results suggest a possible anatomical basis for post stroke psychiatric complications.

Protective Effects of Autologous Bone Marrow Mononuclear Cells After Administering t-PA in an Embolic Stroke Model.

Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) is the only FDA-approved drug for acute ischemic stroke but poses risk for hemorrhagic transformation (HT). Cell therapy has been investigated as a potential therapy to improve recovery after stroke by the modulation of inflammatory responses and the improvement of blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity, both of which are associated with HT after t-PA. In our present study, we studied the effect of autologous bone marrow mononuclear cells (MNCs) in an embolic stroke model. We administered MNCs in a rat embolic stroke 2 h after administering t-PA. We observed that even though autologous MNCs did not alter the incidence of HT, they decreased the severity of HT and reduced BBB permeability. One possible mechanism could be through the inhibition of MMP3 released by astrocytes via JAK/STAT pathway as shown by our in vitro cell interaction studies.

The Effect of Topoisomerase I Inhibitors on the Efficacy of T-Cell-Based Cancer Immunotherapy.

Background: Immunotherapy has increasingly become a staple in cancer treatment. However, substantial limitations in the durability of response highlight the need for more rational therapeutic combinations. The aim of this study is to investigate how to make tumor cells more sensitive to T-cell-based cancer immunotherapy. Methods: Two pairs of melanoma patient-derived tumor cell lines and their autologous tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes were utilized in a high-throughput screen of 850 compounds to identify bioactive agents that could be used in combinatorial strategies to improve T-cell-mediated killing of tumor cells. RNAi, overexpression, and gene expression analyses were utilized to identify the mechanism underlying the effect of Topoisomerase I (Top1) inhibitors on T-cell-mediated killing. Using a syngeneic mouse model (n = 5 per group), the antitumor efficacy of the combination of a clinically relevant Top1 inhibitor, liposomal irinotecan (MM-398), with immune checkpoint inhibitors was also assessed. All statistical tests were two-sided. Results: We found that Top1 inhibitors increased the sensitivity of patient-derived melanoma cell lines (n = 7) to T-cell-mediated cytotoxicity (P < .001, Dunnett's test). This enhancement is mediated by TP53INP1, whose overexpression increased the susceptibility of melanoma cell lines to T-cell cytotoxicity (2549 cell line: P = .009, unpaired t test), whereas its knockdown impeded T-cell killing of Top1 inhibitor-treated melanoma cells (2549 cell line: P < .001, unpaired t test). In vivo, greater tumor control was achieved with MM-398 in combination with α-PD-L1 or α-PD1 (P < .001, Tukey's test). Prolonged survival was also observed in tumor-bearing mice treated with MM-398 in combination with α-PD-L1 (P = .002, log-rank test) or α-PD1 (P = .008, log-rank test). Conclusions: We demonstrated that Top1 inhibitors can improve the antitumor efficacy of cancer immunotherapy, thus providing the basis for developing novel strategies using Top1 inhibitors to augment the efficacy of immunotherapy.

HSP90 inhibition enhances cancer immunotherapy by upregulating interferon response genes.

T-cell-based immunotherapies are promising treatments for cancer patients. Although durable responses can be achieved in some patients, many patients fail to respond to these therapies, underscoring the need for improvement with combination therapies. From a screen of 850 bioactive compounds, we identify HSP90 inhibitors as candidates for combination with immunotherapy. We show that inhibition of HSP90 with ganetespib enhances T-cell-mediated killing of patient-derived human melanoma cells by their autologous T cells in vitro and potentiates responses to anti-CTLA4 and anti-PD1 therapy in vivo. Mechanistic studies reveal that HSP90 inhibition results in upregulation of interferon response genes, which are essential for the enhanced killing of ganetespib treated melanoma cells by T cells. Taken together, these findings provide evidence that HSP90 inhibition can potentiate T-cell-mediated anti-tumor immune responses, and rationale to explore the combination of immunotherapy and HSP90 inhibitors.Many patients fail to respond to T cell based immunotherapies. Here, the authors, through a high-throughput screening, identify HSP90 inhibitors as a class of preferred drugs for treatment combination with immunotherapy.

Tumor Evolution of Glioma-Intrinsic Gene Expression Subtypes Associates with Immunological Changes in the Microenvironment.

We leveraged IDH wild-type glioblastomas, derivative neurospheres, and single-cell gene expression profiles to define three tumor-intrinsic transcriptional subtypes designated as proneural, mesenchymal, and classical. Transcriptomic subtype multiplicity correlated with increased intratumoral heterogeneity and presence of tumor microenvironment. In silico cell sorting identified macrophages/microglia, CD4+ T lymphocytes, and neutrophils in the glioma microenvironment. NF1 deficiency resulted in increased tumor-associated macrophages/microglia infiltration. Longitudinal transcriptome analysis showed that expression subtype is retained in 55% of cases. Gene signature-based tumor microenvironment inference revealed a decrease in invading monocytes and a subtype-dependent increase in macrophages/microglia cells upon disease recurrence. Hypermutation at diagnosis or at recurrence associated with CD8+ T cell enrichment. Frequency of M2 macrophages detection associated with short-term relapse after radiation therapy.