The effects of lipopolysaccharide exposure on social interaction, cytokine expression, and alcohol consumption in male and female mice.

Much recent research has demonstrated a role of inflammatory pathways in depressive-like behavior and excess alcohol consumption. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a cell wall component of gram-negative bacteria that can be used to trigger a strong inflammatory response in rodents in a preclinical research setting to study the mechanisms behind this relationship. In our study, we exposed male and female mice to LPS and assessed depressive-like behavior using the social interaction (SI) test, alcohol consumption in the two-bottle choice procedure, and expression of inflammatory mediators using quantitative PCR. We found that LPS administration decreased SI in female mice but had no significant impact on male mice when assessed 24 h after injection. LPS resulted in increased proinflammatory cytokine expression in both male and female mice; however, some aspects of the cytokine upregulation observed was greater in female mice as compared to males. A separate cohort of male and female mice underwent drinking for 12 days before receiving a saline or LPS injection, which we found to increase alcohol intake in both males and females. We have previously observed a role of the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1R) in escalated alcohol intake, and in the inflammatory and behavioral response to LPS. The NK1R is the endogenous target of the neuropeptide SP, and this system has wide ranging roles in depression, anxiety, drug/alcohol seeking, pain, and inflammation. Thus, we administered a NK1R antagonist prior to alcohol access. This treatment reduced escalated alcohol consumption in female mice treated with LPS but did not affect drinking in males. Taken together, these results indicate that females are more sensitive to some physiological and behavioral effects of LPS administration, but that LPS escalates alcohol consumption in both sexes. Furthermore, NK1R antagonism can reduce alcohol consumption that is escalated by LPS treatment, in line with our previous findings.

Live predator stress in adolescence results in distinct adult behavioral consequences and dorsal diencephalic brain activation patterns.

Exposure to traumatic events during childhood increases the risk of adult psychopathology, including anxiety, depression, alcohol use disorders and their co-morbidity. Early life trauma also results in increased symptom complexity, treatment resistance and poor treatment outcomes. The purpose of this study was to establish a novel rodent model of adolescent stress, based on an ethologically relevant life-threatening event, live predator exposure. Rats were exposed to a live predator for 10 min. at three different time points (postnatal day (PND)31, 46 and 61). Adult depression-, anxiety-like behaviors and ethanol consumption were characterized well past the last acute stress event (two weeks). Behavioral profiles across assessments were developed to characterize individual response to adolescent stress. CNS activation patterns in separate groups of subjects were characterized after the early (PND31) and last predator exposure (PND61). Subjects exposed to live-predator adolescent stress generally exhibited less exploratory behavior, less propensity to venture into open spaces, a decreased preference for sweet solutions and decreased ethanol consumption in a two-bottle preference test. Additional studies demonstrated blunted cortisol response and CNS activation patterns suggestive of habenula, rostromedial tegmental (RMTg), dorsal raphe and central amygdala involvement in mediating the adult consequences of adolescent stress. Thus, adolescent stress in the form of live-predator exposure results in significant adult behavioral and neurobiological disturbances. Childhood trauma, its impact on neurodevelopment and the subsequent development of mood disorders is a pervasive theme in mental illness. Improving animal models and our neurobiological understanding of the symptom domains impacted by trauma could significantly improve treatment strategies.

Selective Lesioning of Nuclear Factor-κB Activated Cells in the Nucleus Accumbens Shell Attenuates Alcohol Place Preference.

Nuclear factor κ-light chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) is a transcription factor commonly associated with innate immunity and is activated by infection and inflammation. NF-κB has recently gained attention as a mediator of complex psychiatric phenomena such as stress and addiction. In regards to alcohol, most research on NF-κB has focused on neurotoxicity and few studies have explored the role of NF-κB in alcohol reward, reinforcement, or consumption. In these studies, we used conditioned place preference to assess the activity of NF-κB in response to rewarding doses of alcohol. To measure NF-κB activity we used a line of transgenic mice that express the LacZ gene under the control of an NF-κB-regulated promoter. In these animals, staining for ß-galactosidase (ß-gal) identifies cells in which NF-κB has been activated. We then used the Daun02 inactivation method to specifically silence NF-κB-expressing cells during place preference conditioning. Daun02 is an inactive prodrug that is converted to the inhibitory molecule daunorubicin by ß-gal. After alcohol place conditioning, we observed increased ß-gal staining in the nucleus accumbens (NAC) shell and dorsal raphe nucleus, and found that disruption of NF-κB-expressing cells using Daun02 attenuated the development of alcohol place preference when infused into the NAC shell following conditioning sessions. We found this effect to be regionally and temporally specific. These results suggest that, in addition to its role in alcohol-induced neurotoxicity, NF-κB mediates the development of alcohol place preference via its actions in the NAC shell.

The Role of NFkB in Drug Addiction: Beyond Inflammation.

AIMS: Nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cells (NFkB) is a ubiquitous transcription factor well known for its role in the innate immune response. As such, NFkB is a transcriptional activator of inflammatory mediators such as cytokines. It has recently been demonstrated that alcohol and other drugs of abuse can induce NFkB activity and cytokine expression in the brain. A number of reviews have been published highlighting this effect of alcohol, and have linked increased NFkB function to neuroimmune-stimulated toxicity. However, in this review we focus on the potentially non-immune functions of NFkB as possible links between NFkB and addiction. METHODS: An extensive review of the literature via Pubmed searches was used to assess the current state of the field. RESULTS: NFkB can induce the expression of a diverse set of gene targets besides inflammatory mediators, some of which are involved in addictive processes, such as opioid receptors and neuropeptides. NFkB mediates complex behaviors including learning and memory, stress responses, anhedonia and drug reward, processes that may lie outside the role of NFkB in the classic neuroimmune response. CONCLUSIONS: Future studies should focus on these non-immune functions of NFkB signaling and their association with addiction-related processes.

Dependence-induced increase of alcohol self-administration and compulsive drinking mediated by the histone methyltransferase PRDM2.

Epigenetic processes have been implicated in the pathophysiology of alcohol dependence, but the specific molecular mechanisms mediating dependence-induced neuroadaptations remain largely unknown. Here, we found that a history of alcohol dependence persistently decreased the expression of Prdm2, a histone methyltransferase that monomethylates histone 3 at the lysine 9 residue (H3K9me1), in the rat dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC). Downregulation of Prdm2 was associated with decreased H3K9me1, supporting that changes in Prdm2 mRNA levels affected its activity. Chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by massively parallel DNA sequencing showed that genes involved in synaptic communication are epigenetically regulated by H3K9me1 in dependent rats. In non-dependent rats, viral-vector-mediated knockdown of Prdm2 in the dmPFC resulted in expression changes similar to those observed following a history of alcohol dependence. Prdm2 knockdown resulted in increased alcohol self-administration, increased aversion-resistant alcohol intake and enhanced stress-induced relapse to alcohol seeking, a phenocopy of postdependent rats. Collectively, these results identify a novel epigenetic mechanism that contributes to the development of alcohol-seeking behavior following a history of dependence.

Neurokinin-1 receptor antagonism attenuates neuronal activity triggered by stress-induced reinstatement of alcohol seeking.

Substance P (SP) and its cognate neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1R) are involved in alcohol-related behaviors. We have previously reported that NK1R antagonism attenuates stress-induced reinstatement of alcohol seeking and suppresses escalated alcohol self-administration, but does not affect primary reinforcement or cue-induced reinstatement. Here, we administered an NK1R antagonist or vehicle prior to footshock-induced reinstatement of alcohol seeking, and mapped the resulting neuronal activation using Fos immunohistochemistry. As expected, vehicle treated animals exposed to footshock showed induction of Fos immunoreactivity in several regions of the brain stress circuitry, including the amygdala (AMG), nucleus accumbens (NAC), dorsal raphe nucleus (DR), prefrontal cortex (PFC), and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST). NK1R antagonism selectively suppressed the stress-induced increase in Fos in the DR and NAC shell. In the DR, Fos-induction by stress largely overlapped with tryptophan hydroxylase (TrpH), indicating activation of serotonergic neurons. Of NAC shell neurons activated during stress-induced reinstatement of alcohol seeking, about 30% co-expressed dynorphin (DYN), while 70% co-expressed enkephalin (ENK). Few (<1%) activated NAC shell neurons coexpressed choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), which labels the cholinergic interneurons of this region. Infusion of the NK1R antagonist L822429 into the NAC shell blocked stress-induced reinstatement of alcohol seeking. In contrast, L822429 infusion into the DR had no effect, suggesting that the influence of NK1R signaling on neuronal activity in the DR is indirect. Taken together, our results outline a potential pathway through which endogenous NK1R activation mediates stress-induced alcohol seeking.

Wistar rats acquire and maintain self-administration of 20 % ethanol without water deprivation, saccharin/sucrose fading, or extended access training.

RATIONALE: Operant self-administration (SA) is an important model of motivation to consume ethanol (EtOH), but low rates of voluntary consumption in rats are thought to necessitate water deprivation and saccharin/sucrose fading for acquisition of responding. OBJECTIVES: Here, we sought to devise an effective model of SA that does not use water deprivation or saccharin/sucrose fading. METHODS: First, we tested if Wistar rats would acquire and maintain SA behavior of 20 % EtOH under two conditions, water deprivation (WD) and non-water deprivation (NWD). Second, we tested the efficacy of our SA procedure by confirming a prior study which found that the NK1 antagonist L822429 specifically blocked stress-induced reinstatement of EtOH seeking but not SA. Finally, we assessed the effect of naltrexone, an FDA-approved medication for alcohol dependence that has been shown to suppress EtOH SA in rodents. RESULTS: Lever presses (LPs) and rewards were consistent with previous reports that utilized WD and saccharin/sucrose fading. Similar to previous findings, we found that L822429 blocked stress-induced reinstatement but not baseline SA of 20 % EtOH. Moreover, naltrexone dose-dependently decreased alcohol intake and motivation to consume alcohol for rats that are self-administering 20 % EtOH. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide a method for voluntary oral EtOH SA in rats that is convenient for experimenters and eliminates the potential confound of sweeteners in EtOH-operant SA studies. Unlike models that use intermittent access to 20 % EtOH, this method does not induce escalation, and based on pharmacological experiments, it appears to be driven by the positive reinforcing effects of EtOH.

Coordinated dysregulation of mRNAs and microRNAs in the rat medial prefrontal cortex following a history of alcohol dependence.

Long-term changes in brain gene expression have been identified in alcohol dependence, but underlying mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we examined the potential role of microRNAs (miRNAs) for persistent gene expression changes in the rat medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) after a history of alcohol dependence. Two-bottle free-choice alcohol consumption increased following 7-week exposure to intermittent alcohol intoxication. A bioinformatic approach using microarray analysis, quantitative PCR (qPCR), bioinformatic analysis and microRNA-messenger RNA (mRNA) integrative analysis identified expression patterns indicative of a disruption in synaptic processes and neuroplasticity. About 41 rat miRNAs and 165 mRNAs in the mPFC were significantly altered after chronic alcohol exposure. A subset of the miRNAs and mRNAs was confirmed by qPCR. Gene ontology categories of differential expression pointed to functional processes commonly associated with neurotransmission, neuroadaptation and synaptic plasticity. microRNA-mRNA expression pairing identified 33 miRNAs putatively targeting 89 mRNAs suggesting transcriptional networks involved in axonal guidance and neurotransmitter signaling. Our results demonstrate a significant shift in microRNA expression patterns in the mPFC following a history of dependence. Owing to their global regulation of multiple downstream target transcripts, miRNAs may have a pivotal role in the reorganization of synaptic connections and long-term neuroadaptations in alcohol dependence. MicroRNA-mediated alterations of transcriptional networks may be involved in disrupted prefrontal control over alcohol drinking observed in alcoholic patients.