ABSTRACT
PURPOSE: To describe a stepwise approach to evaluate the pH effect for a weakly basic drug by in vitro, in vivo and in silico techniques and identify a viable mitigation strategy that addresses the risk. METHODS: Clinical studies included assessment of the pH effect with famotidine. In vitro dissolution was evaluated in various biorelevant media and in a pH-shift test. PK studies in dogs were conducted under pentagastrin or famotidine pre-treatment and GastroPlus was employed to model human and dog PK data and simulate the performance in human. RESULTS: Clinical data indicated considerable pH dependent absorption of the drug when dosed in the presence of H2-antagonists. In vitro dissolution and in vivo dog data confirmed that the observed pH effect was due to reduced dissolution rate and lower solubility at increased gastric and intestinal pH. A salt form was identified to overcome the effect by providing fast dissolution and prolonged supersaturation. GastroPlus simulations predicted a mitigation of the pH effect by the salt. CONCLUSIONS: The drug exhibited a strong pH-effect in humans. The in vitro, in vivo and modeling approach provides a systematic workflow to evaluate the risk of a new drug and identify a strategy able to mitigate the risk.
Subject(s)
Anti-Ulcer Agents/pharmacokinetics , Computer Simulation , Drug Compounding/methods , Famotidine/pharmacokinetics , Intestinal Absorption , Models, Biological , Administration, Oral , Animals , Anti-Ulcer Agents/administration & dosage , Biological Availability , Dogs , Famotidine/administration & dosage , Female , Humans , Hydrogen-Ion Concentration , MaleABSTRACT
Nanosuspensions of the example compounds ketoconazole and itraconazole were shown to aggregate upon reducing the pH to levels comparable to that known to exist in the stomach. Manipulation of the surfactant/polymer ratio in the suspension vehicle did not elucidate the cause of the aggregation. X-ray diffraction on ketoconazole solids failed to identify a form change as causative. Ultimately, ketoconazole intrinsic dissolution rate experiments implicated surface salt formation between ketoconazole and the vehicle surfactant as the cause of the aggregation. The generality of the phenomenon is discussed.
Subject(s)
Dioctyl Sulfosuccinic Acid/chemistry , Itraconazole/chemistry , Ketoconazole/chemistry , Nanoparticles/chemistry , Povidone/chemistry , Surface-Active Agents/chemistry , Drug Compounding , Drug Stability , Furosemide/chemistry , Hydrogen-Ion Concentration , Piroxicam/chemistry , SuspensionsABSTRACT
The thermodynamics underpinning cocrystal formation are derived. The results provide the pharmaceutical scientist with the foundation to experimentally assess the thermodynamic stability of a cocrystal with respect to its component forms. Data for the carbamazepine-nicotinamide system are discussed as an example.
