An impending water crisis in Canada's western prairie provinces.

Canada is usually considered to be a country with abundant freshwater, but in its western prairie provinces (WPP), an area 1/5 the size of Europe, freshwater is scarce. European settlement of the WPP did not begin until the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Fortuitously, the period since European settlement appears to have been the wettest century of the past two millennia. The frequent, long periods of drought that characterized earlier centuries of the past two millennia were largely absent in the 20th century. Here, we show that climate warming and human modifications to catchments have already significantly reduced the flows of major rivers of the WPP during the summer months, when human demand and in-stream flow needs are greatest. We predict that in the near future climate warming, via its effects on glaciers, snowpacks, and evaporation, will combine with cyclic drought and rapidly increasing human activity in the WPP to cause a crisis in water quantity and quality with far-reaching implications.

Melting glaciers: a major source of persistent organochlorines to subalpine Bow Lake in Banff National Park, Canada.

Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are ubiquitous and persistent in the environment. They are known to concentrate in cold environments as a result of progressive evaporation from warm regions, and condensation in colder regions. In this study we show that melting glaciers supply 50 to 97% of the organochlorine inputs to a subalpine lake in Alberta, Canada, while contributing 73% of input water. Tritium analyses indicated that during the mid- to late summer warm period, at least 10% of the glacial melt originated from ice that was deposited in 1950-1970, when it was more contaminated with organochlorines. This finding suggests that climate warming may cause melting glaciers to become increasing sources of contaminants to freshwaters. Organochlorines from glacial streams were largely in dissolved form because the organic-poor glacial clays had a limited sorption capacity for the more hydrophobic chemicals.

Phosphate concentrations in lakes.

Phosphate is an important nutrient that restricts microbial production in many freshwater and marine environments. The actual concentration of phosphate in phosphorus-limited waters is largely unknown because commonly used chemical and radiochemical techniques overestimate the concentration. Here, using a new steady-state radiobioassay to survey a diverse set of lakes, we report phosphate concentrations in lakes that are orders of magnitude lower than estimates made spectrophotometrically or with the frequently used Rigler radiobioassay. Our results, combined with those from the literature, indicate that microbes can achieve rapid turnover rates at picomolar nutrient concentrations. This occurs even though these concentrations are about two orders of magnitude below the level where phosphate uptake is estimated to be half the saturation level for the pico-plankton community. Also, while phosphate concentration increased with the concentration of total phosphorus and soluble reactive phosphorus in the lakes we sampled, the proportion of phosphate in the total phosphorus pool decreased from oligotrophic to eutrophic lakes. Such information, as revealed by the phosphate assay that we use here, should allow us to address hypotheses concerning the concentration of phosphate available to planktonic microorganisms in aquatic systems.

High concentrations of toxaphene in fishes from a subarctic lake.

Concentrations of toxaphene and other organochlorine compounds are high in fishes from subarctic Lake Laberge, Yukon Territory, Canada. Nitrogen isotope analyses of food chains and contaminant analyses of biota, water, and dated lake sediments show that the high concentrations of toxaphene in fishes from Laberge resulted entirely from the biomagnification of atmospheric inputs. A combination of low inputs of toxaphene from the atmosphere and transfer through an exceptionally long food chain has resulted in concentrations of toxaphene in fishes that are considered hazardous to human health.

Ecosystem experiments.

Experimental manipulations of entire ecosystems have been conducted in lakes, catchments, streams, and open terrestrial and marine environments. Experiments have addressed applied problems of ecosystem management and complex responses of communities and ecosystems to perturbations. In the course of some experiments, environmental indicators and models have been developed and tested. Surprising results with implications for ecological understanding and management are common.

Correlation between stable nitrogen isotope ratios and concentrations of organochlorines in biota from a freshwater food web.

The relationship between total concentrations of hexachlorocyclohexane (sigma HCH), sigma DDT, and chlorinated bornanes (toxaphene, sigma CHB) and the trophic position of biota from a subarctic lake was investigated using stable isotope ratios of nitrogen (15N/14N). Zooplankton, benthic invertebrates, and forage and piscivorous fishes were analysed for 15N/14N and organochlorines using mass spectrometry and high resolution capillary gas chromatography (GC-ECD), respectively. The trophic relationships of the biota were clearly defined, with 15N/14N increasing an average of 3.3/1000 from prey species to predator. Mean concentrations of sigma HCH were lowest in chironomids (subfamily Chironominae, 0.2 ng/g wet wt.) and highest in burbot liver (Lota lota; 30.2 ng/g wet wt.). Mean concentrations of sigma DDT and sigma CHB ranges from 0.5 and 2.0 (ng/g wet wt.), respectively, in snails (Family Limnaeidae), to 3430 and 2820 (ng/g wet wt.) in burbot liver. Regression analyses indicated that both the wet and lipid weight concentrations of sigma HCH, sigma DDT, and sigma CHB in the biota from this food web were significantly related to trophic position, as defined by delta 15 N. Results from this study indicated that delta 15 N can be used to predict concentrations of organochlorines in freshwater biota.

A View of NAPAP from North of the Border.

Despite widespread political interference with programs and confusion of science and policy, the NAPAP program has produced a number of sound, if not outstanding, publications documenting the effects of acidic deposition. NAPAP's outstanding strengths in aquatic science are in paleoecology and spatial surveys of chemistry. NAPAP has severe shortcomings in documentation of temporal trends, in deducing biological responses to acidification by organisms other than fish, in considering the effects of nitrogen deposition, and in considering results from countries other than the USA. Summaries of the NAPAP program in 1987 and 1990 underrepresent the extent of damage caused by acidification, as documented elsewhere in NAPAP's publications and by the peer-reviewed literature at large. Overall, it represents a mediocre return for a large amount of investment, and is a poor model for future large, multidisciplinary science projects.

Effects of climatic warming on lakes of the central boreal forest.

Twenty years of climatic, hydrologic, and ecological records for the Experimental Lakes Area of northwestern Ontario show that air and lake temperatures have increased by 2 degrees C and the length of the ice-free season has increased by 3 weeks. Higher than normal evaporation and lower than average precipitation have decreased rates of water renewal in lakes. Concentrations of most chemicals have increased in both lakes and streams because of decreased water renewal and forest fires in the catchments. In Lake 239, populations and diversity of phytoplankton also increased, but primary production showed no consistent trend. Increased wind velocities, increased transparency, and increased exposure to wind of lakes in burned catchments caused thermoclines to deepen. As a result, summer habitats for cold stenothermic organisms like lake trout and opposum shrimp decreased. Our observations may provide a preview of the effects of increased greenhouse warming on boreal lakes.

Losses of biota from American aquatic communities due to acid rain.

Models based on chemical survey data and geochemical assumptions were calibrated for areas where rates of acidification are known, then used to predict the declines in alkalinity and pH of lakes in the eastern and midwestern U.S.A. These results were combined with known acid tolerances of different taxonomic groups to estimate the extent of damage caused by acid rain to biological assemblages.An average of over 50% of the species in some taxonomic groups have probably been eliminated from lakes in the Adirondacks, Poconos-Catskills and southern New England. Moderate damage to biotic communities was predicted for lakes in central New England, and north-central Wisconsin. Damage predicted in Maine, upper Michigan, northeastern Minnesota and the remainder of the upper Great Lakes region was slight. Crustaceans, molluscs, leeches and insects were among the most severely affected groups. Among fishes, species of minnows (Cyprindae) were depleted in the most heavily acidified regions, with some declines in salmonid and centrarchid species.Predicted damage to individual lakes in all areas was highly variable. In areas receiving highly acidic deposition, 100% of the species in acid-sensitive taxonomic groups were eliminated in some lakes, while damage to other lakes was predicted to be slight.Estimated damage varied from lake to lake within each subregion, based on chemical characteristics. The most heavily damaged lakes in the Adirondacks and Pocono-Catskills have probably lost all species of molluscs, leeches and crustaceans. On the other hand, lakes of the Midwest showed either slight increases or decreases in the richness of predicted biotic communities.The possible ranges of original sulfate concentrations in lakes and the proportion of sulfuric acid in precipitation that liberated base cations from catchments were confined to relatively narrow limits by the model.

Disruption of the nitrogen cycle in acidified lakes.

Experimental acidification of two small soft-water lakes caused nitrification to cease at pH values of 5.4 to 5.7. The resulting blockage of the nitrogen cycle caused a progressive accumulation of amnonium. When the epermental acidification of one of the lakes was ended and the pH was raised to 5.4, nitrification resumed after a time lag of 1 year.

Effects of Acid rain on freshwater ecosystems.

Acid-vulnerable areas are more numerous and widespread than believed 7 years ago. Lakes and streams in acid-vulnerable areas of northeastern North America have suffered substantial declines in acid-neutralizing capacity, the worst cases resulting in biological damage. Many invertebrates are very sensitive to acidification, with some disappearing at pH values as high as 6.0. However, the recent rate of acidification of lakes is slower than once predicted, in part the result of decreases in sulfur oxide emissions. A discussion of some of the processes that have contributed to the acidification of lakes as well as those that have protected acid-sensitive freshwaters is presented. The author is in the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Freshwater Institute, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N6, Canada.

Natural sources of Acid neutralizing capacity in low alkalinity lakes of the precambrian shield.

A detailed alkalinity budget was constructed for Lake 239 in the Experimental Lakes Area of northwestern Ontario and for three small watersheds in its terrestrial basin. Alkalinity generation in the lake averaged 118 milliequivalents per square meter per year, 4.5 times as high as the areal rate in the terrestrial basin. Although acid deposition in the area is low, only one of the three terrestrial watersheds was a significant source of alkalinity. A second terrestrial watershed yielded very little alkalinity. The third watershed, which contains a wetland, was a sink for, rather than a source of, alkalinity. An analysis of ion budgets for the lake revealed that more than half of the in situ alkalinity production was by biological rather than geochemical processes. The major processes that generated alkalinity were: biological reduction of SO(4)(2-)(53%), exchange of H(+) for Ca(2+) in sediments (39%), and biological reduction of NO(3)(-) (26%). Comparison with experimentally acidified Lake 223 revealed that alkalinity production by sulfate reduction increased in response to increased inputs of sulfuric acid.

Long-term ecosystem stress: the effects of years of experimental acidification on a small lake.

Experimental acidification of a small lake from an original pH value of 6.8 to 5.0 over an 8-year period caused a number of dramatic changes in the lake's food web. Changes in phytoplankton species, cessation of fish reproduction, disappearance of the benthic crustaceans, and appearance of filamentous algae in the littoral zone were consistent with deductions from synoptic surveys of lakes in regions of high acid deposition. Contrary to what had been expected from synoptic surveys, acidification of Lake 223 did not cause decreases in primary production, rates of decomposition, or nutrient concentrations. Key organisms in the food web leading to lake trout, including Mysis relicta and Pimephales promelas, were eliminated from the lake at pH values as high as 5.8, an indication that irreversible stresses on aquatic ecosystems occur earlier in the acidification process than was heretofore believed. These changes are caused by hydrogen ion alone, and not by the secondary effect of aluminum toxicity. Since no species of fish reproduced at pH values below 5.4, the lake would become fishless within about a decade on the basis of the natural mortalities of the most long-lived species.

Eutrophication and recovery in experimental lakes: implications for lake management.

Combinations of phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon were added to several small lakes in northwestern Ontario, Canada, at rates similar to those in many culturally eutrophied lakes. Phosphate and nitrate caused rapid eutrophication. A similar result was obtained with phosphate, ammonia, and sucrose, but recovery was almost immediate when phosphate additions only were discontinued. When two basins of one lake were fertilized with equal amounts of nitrate and sucrose, and phosphorus was also added to one of the basins, the phosphateenriched basin quickly became highly eutrophic, while the basin receiving only nitrogen and carbon remained at prefertilization conditions. These results, and the high affinity of sediments for phosphorus indicate that rapid abatement of eutrophication may be expected to follow phosphorus control measures.