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1.
Hum Mol Genet ; 32(13): 2192-2204, 2023 06 19.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-37010102

ABSTRACT

Pathogenic heterozygous variants in SCN2A, which encodes the neuronal sodium channel NaV1.2, cause different types of epilepsy or intellectual disability (ID)/autism without seizures. Previous studies using mouse models or heterologous systems suggest that NaV1.2 channel gain-of-function typically causes epilepsy, whereas loss-of-function leads to ID/autism. How altered channel biophysics translate into patient neurons remains unknown. Here, we investigated iPSC-derived early-stage cortical neurons from ID patients harboring diverse pathogenic SCN2A variants [p.(Leu611Valfs*35); p.(Arg937Cys); p.(Trp1716*)] and compared them with neurons from an epileptic encephalopathy (EE) patient [p.(Glu1803Gly)] and controls. ID neurons consistently expressed lower NaV1.2 protein levels. In neurons with the frameshift variant, NaV1.2 mRNA and protein levels were reduced by ~ 50%, suggesting nonsense-mediated decay and haploinsufficiency. In other ID neurons, only protein levels were reduced implying NaV1.2 instability. Electrophysiological analysis revealed decreased sodium current density and impaired action potential (AP) firing in ID neurons, consistent with reduced NaV1.2 levels. In contrast, epilepsy neurons displayed no change in NaV1.2 levels or sodium current density, but impaired sodium channel inactivation. Single-cell transcriptomics identified dysregulation of distinct molecular pathways including inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation in neurons with SCN2A haploinsufficiency and activation of calcium signaling and neurotransmission in epilepsy neurons. Together, our patient iPSC-derived neurons reveal characteristic sodium channel dysfunction consistent with biophysical changes previously observed in heterologous systems. Additionally, our model links the channel dysfunction in ID to reduced NaV1.2 levels and uncovers impaired AP firing in early-stage neurons. The altered molecular pathways may reflect a homeostatic response to NaV1.2 dysfunction and can guide further investigations.


Subject(s)
Epilepsy , Intellectual Disability , Epilepsy/genetics , Intellectual Disability/genetics , NAV1.2 Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel/genetics , NAV1.2 Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel/metabolism , Neurons/metabolism , Seizures , Sodium/metabolism , Sodium Channels/genetics , Humans
2.
Sci Rep ; 9(1): 4641, 2019 03 15.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30874586

ABSTRACT

Though clinical trials for medical applications of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) reported toxicity in the 1960s, later, the FDA classified DMSO in the safest solvent category. DMSO became widely used in many biomedical fields and biological effects were overlooked. Meanwhile, biomedical science has evolved towards sensitive high-throughput techniques and new research areas, including epigenomics and microRNAs. Considering its wide use, especially for cryopreservation and in vitro assays, we evaluated biological effect of DMSO using these technological innovations. We exposed 3D cardiac and hepatic microtissues to medium with or without 0.1% DMSO and analyzed the transcriptome, proteome and DNA methylation profiles. In both tissue types, transcriptome analysis detected >2000 differentially expressed genes affecting similar biological processes, thereby indicating consistent cross-organ actions of DMSO. Furthermore, microRNA analysis revealed large-scale deregulations of cardiac microRNAs and smaller, though still massive, effects in hepatic microtissues. Genome-wide methylation patterns also revealed tissue-specificity. While hepatic microtissues demonstrated non-significant changes, findings from cardiac microtissues suggested disruption of DNA methylation mechanisms leading to genome-wide changes. The extreme changes in microRNAs and alterations in the epigenetic landscape indicate that DMSO is not inert. Its use should be reconsidered, especially for cryopreservation of embryos and oocytes, since it may impact embryonic development.


Subject(s)
Dimethyl Sulfoxide/metabolism , Dimethyl Sulfoxide/toxicity , Biological Phenomena , Cryopreservation/methods , Cryoprotective Agents/pharmacology , DNA Methylation/drug effects , Dimethyl Sulfoxide/pharmacology , Embryonic Development/drug effects , Epigenesis, Genetic/drug effects , Epigenomics/methods , Female , Gene Expression Profiling , Hepatocytes/drug effects , Humans , Male , MicroRNAs/drug effects , Myocytes, Cardiac/drug effects , Oocytes/drug effects , Primary Cell Culture , Solvents/pharmacology , Transcriptome/drug effects
3.
Mol Genet Genomics ; 275(1): 55-67, 2006 Jan.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-16328374

ABSTRACT

The design and use of a pilot microarray for transcriptome analysis of the symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing Bradyrhizobium japonicum is reported here. The custom-synthesized chip (Affymetrix GeneChip) features 738 genes, more than half of which belong to a 400-kb chromosomal segment strongly associated with symbiosis-related functions. RNA was isolated following an optimized protocol from wild-type cells grown aerobically and microaerobically, and from cells of aerobically grown regR mutant and microaerobically grown nifA mutant. Comparative microarray analyses thus revealed genes that are transcribed in either a RegR- or a NifA-dependent manner plus genes whose expression depends on the cellular oxygen status. Several genes were newly identified as members of the RegR and NifA regulons, beyond genes, which had been known from previous work. A comprehensive transcription analysis was performed with one of the new RegR-controlled genes (id880). Expression levels determined by microarray analysis of selected NifA- and RegR-controlled genes corresponded well with quantitative real-time PCR data, demonstrating the high complementarity of microarray analysis to classical methods of gene expression analysis in B. japonicum. Nevertheless, several previously established members of the NifA regulon were not detected as transcribed genes by microarray analysis, confirming the potential pitfalls of this approach also observed by other authors. By and large, this pilot study has paved the way towards the genome-wide transcriptome analysis of the 9.1-Mb B. japonicum genome.


Subject(s)
Bradyrhizobium/physiology , Gene Expression Regulation, Bacterial/physiology , Genome, Bacterial/physiology , Bacterial Proteins/genetics , Bacterial Proteins/metabolism , Gene Expression Profiling , Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis , Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction , Symbiosis/genetics , Transcription Factors/genetics , Transcription Factors/metabolism
4.
Eur J Immunol ; 30(12): 3680-8, 2000 Dec.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-11169411

ABSTRACT

During inflammatory reactions in the central nervous system (CNS), resident macrophages, the microglia, are exposed to Th1 cell-derived cytokines and pro-apoptotic Fas ligand (FasL). Despite the presence of TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma, both being capable of sensitizing microglia to FasL, apoptosis of microglia is not a hallmark of inflammatory diseases of the CNS. In the present study, TGF-beta is found to counteract the effect of TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma to sensitize microglia to FasL-mediated apoptosis. Resistance to Fas-mediated apoptosis by TGF-beta does not correlate with a down-regulation of Fas expression. As a key inhibitor of Fas-mediated apoptosis, we found expression of the cellular FLICE-inhibitory protein (c-FLIP) to be induced by TGF-beta in resting as well as in activated microglia. Induction of FLIP was found to depend on a mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MKK)-dependent pathway as shown by the use of the specific MKK-inhibitor PD98059. The presence of FLIP strongly interfered with FasL-induced activation of caspase-8 and caspase-3 preventing subsequent cell death. The presented data provide the first evidence for a TGF-beta-mediated FLIP in macrophage-like cells and suggest a mode of action for the anti-apoptotic role of TGF-beta in the CNS.


Subject(s)
Apoptosis/drug effects , Caspase Inhibitors , Microglia/physiology , Transforming Growth Factor beta/pharmacology , fas Receptor/physiology , Animals , Caspase 3 , Caspase 8 , Caspase 9 , Fas Ligand Protein , Membrane Glycoproteins/pharmacology , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Microglia/drug effects
5.
Eur J Immunol ; 29(10): 3053-62, 1999 10.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-10540316

ABSTRACT

The mechanisms underlying neurotoxicity mediated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) and their secretory granule proteins perforin and granzymes remain unclear. We evaluated the possible role of the neurotransmitter glutamate in cell death observed in differentiated neurons exposed to CTL-derived granules. Excitotoxicity induced by excessive concentrations of extracellular glutamate is associated with a rise in intracellular calcium and can lead to generation of NO through the activation of glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Consistent with an involvement of glutamate, we found that cell death in mature cerebral granule cells was inhibited by 65-80% by two NMDA receptor blockers (MK-801 and D-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid) or a NO synthase blocker (N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methylester). Furthermore, neurons treated with secretory granules responded with a biphasic rise in the intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i). Whereas MK-801 did not interfere with the immediate rise of [Ca2+]i, the second wave of calcium accumulation starting at 40 min was delayed by 20 min and reduced in amplitude in the presence of MK-801. In immature, NMDA receptor-negative neurons, MK-801 prevented neither the cytotoxicity nor the calcium influx observed 5 min after addition of cytotoxic granules. The demonstration that NMDA receptors and NO are involved in granule-mediated killing of mature neurons opens new avenues in the treatment of neuronal cell death in CTL-mediated diseases such as viral encephalitis.


Subject(s)
Cytoplasmic Granules/immunology , Neurons/immunology , Neurons/metabolism , Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate/physiology , T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology , 2-Amino-5-phosphonovalerate/pharmacology , Animals , Calcium/immunology , Calcium/metabolism , Cell Death/immunology , Cell Differentiation , Cells, Cultured , Cerebellum/cytology , Cerebellum/immunology , Cytoplasmic Granules/metabolism , Dizocilpine Maleate/pharmacology , Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology , Excitatory Amino Acid Antagonists/pharmacology , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , NG-Nitroarginine Methyl Ester/pharmacology , Neurons/cytology , Nitric Oxide/immunology , Nitric Oxide/metabolism , Nitric Oxide Synthase/antagonists & inhibitors , Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate/antagonists & inhibitors
6.
Eur J Immunol ; 28(12): 4398-408, 1998 Dec.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-9862377

ABSTRACT

The immune response in the central nervous system (CNS) involves microglial cells which represent intraparenchymal antigen-presenting cells (APC). To control immune effector mechanisms it may be required to induce apoptosis of APC and thereby limit reactivation of T cells that have invaded the CNS. In the present study we investigated the susceptibility of primary murine microglia and of the murine microglial cell line BV-2 to undergo Fas-mediated apoptosis. Whereas resting microglia are resistant to Fas ligand (FasL) treatment, induction of FasL-mediated apoptosis was achieved by treatment with TNF-alpha or IFN-gamma. The effect of these cytokines was paralleled by up-regulation of Fas expression and down-regulation of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL but not Bax. Activation of microglia by TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma was also accompanied by increased amounts of mRNA for the apoptosis inhibitor FLIP, an effect which did not protect the cells from FasL-induced apoptosis. The FasL-induced cell death pathway in microglia involves reactive oxygen intermediates because the antioxidants N-acetylcysteine and glutathione interfere with induction of apoptosis. Surprisingly, microglia constitutively express FasL on the cell surface. However, blocking of endogenous Fas-FasL interaction with Fas-Fc fusion protein did not enhance the survival of microglia, excluding the possibility of suicide or fratricide mechanisms. By their expression of FasL and their TNF-alpha/IFN-gamma-dependent sensitivity to the pro-apoptotic effect of exogenous FasL, microglial cells may influence the course of T cell-mediated diseases of the CNS.


Subject(s)
Apoptosis/immunology , Interferon-gamma/immunology , Microglia/immunology , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-bcl-2/immunology , Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/immunology , fas Receptor/immunology , Animals , Apoptosis/drug effects , Cell Line , Down-Regulation , Interferon-gamma/pharmacology , Mice , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-bcl-2/biosynthesis , Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/pharmacology , Up-Regulation , bcl-X Protein , fas Receptor/biosynthesis
7.
Biochim Biophys Acta ; 1359(2): 174-80, 1997 Nov 27.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-9409814

ABSTRACT

Fas ligand is a potent inducer of apoptosis in human glioma cells by the Fas/Fas ligand pathway. With comparable efficiency, metalloprotease inhibitors including puromycin and bestatin induce apoptosis in glioma cells. To evaluate the involvement of potential components involved in Fas ligand- and metalloprotease inhibitor-induced apoptosis, we investigated the effect of anti human Fas antibody, soluble Fas ligand and puromycin on cultures of human malignant glioma cell lines (LN-18, LN-229, T98G). Stimulation with Fas ligand lead to apoptotic cell death within 16 h. Costimulation with the translational inhibitor cycloheximide and the transcription blocker actinomycin D did not reduce Fas ligand toxicity. In contrast, apoptosis induced by puromycin was blocked by cycloheximide and decreased by subtoxic doses of actinomycin D in all three gliomas. Whereas inhibition of caspase activity with the general inhibitor zVAD-fmk resulted in a complete block of Fas ligand-induced cell death, puromycin-mediated apoptosis was found to be unaffected by zVAD-fmk as well as by more specific inhibitors for caspase-1 (Interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme) and caspase-3 (CPP32/Yama). Other prominent components involved in many apoptotic pathways as bcl-2 and reactive oxygen intermediates were also examined. Bcl-2 which protects glioma cells from Fas ligand-induced cell death, was shown to have only a small protective effect on puromycin-induced apoptosis. The tested radical scavengers did not reduce Fas- or puromycin-mediated killing of human glioma cells.


Subject(s)
Apoptosis/drug effects , Cysteine Endopeptidases/metabolism , Cysteine Proteinase Inhibitors/pharmacology , Glioma/pathology , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-bcl-2/metabolism , Amino Acid Chloromethyl Ketones/pharmacology , Antibodies, Monoclonal/immunology , Caspase 1 , Cell Survival/drug effects , Cycloheximide/pharmacology , Dactinomycin/pharmacology , Fas Ligand Protein , Free Radical Scavengers/pharmacology , Glioma/metabolism , Humans , Leucine/analogs & derivatives , Leucine/pharmacology , Membrane Glycoproteins/metabolism , Oligopeptides/pharmacology , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-bcl-2/genetics , Puromycin/pharmacology , Transfection/genetics , Tumor Cells, Cultured , fas Receptor/immunology , fas Receptor/metabolism
8.
J Neurochem ; 68(3): 889-97, 1997 Mar.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-9048733

ABSTRACT

The puromycin-sensitive aminopeptidase (PSA) is thought to contribute to the degradation of enkephalins. Besides being the most abundant aminopeptidase in the brain, PSA is expressed in other organs as well. From a human fetal brain cDNA library, we have isolated a cDNA encoding the human PSA (huPSA) protein. The isolated cDNA gave rise to a protein with a molecular mass of 99 kDa. Compared with mouse PSA, homology at the amino acid and cDNA level was 98 and 93%, respectively. Translation of the huPSA was found to be initiated at the second of two possible start codons, as shown by studies with antibodies directed against peptide sequences of both potential N-terminal regions. Northern blot analysis with RNA isolated from different human organs demonstrated that the huPSA transcript is strongest but not exclusively expressed in the brain. Vesicular stomatitis virus epitope-tagged huPSA protein was expressed in HeLa cells and found to be localized in the cytoplasm, especially in the perinuclear region. By in situ hybridization, huPSA transcript could be identified in cortical and cerebellar neurons, whereas glial cells and blood vessels remained negative.


Subject(s)
Aminopeptidases/genetics , Aminopeptidases/metabolism , Cloning, Molecular , Neurons/metabolism , Amino Acid Sequence , Animals , Blotting, Northern , HeLa Cells , Humans , In Situ Hybridization , Intracellular Membranes/metabolism , Mice , Molecular Sequence Data , Protein Biosynthesis
9.
Biochim Biophys Acta ; 1271(1): 67-74, 1995 May 24.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-7599228

ABSTRACT

Reactive oxygen species (ROS: superoxide radical, O2.-; hydrogen peroxide, H2O2; hydroxyl radical, OH.), which arise from the univalent reduction of dioxygen are formed in mitochondria. We summarize here results which indicate that ROS, and also the radical nitrogen monoxide ('nitric oxide', NO), act as physiological modulators of some mitochondrial functions, but may also damage mitochondria. Hydrogen peroxide, which originates in mitochondria predominantly from the dismutation of superoxide, causes oxidation of mitochondrial pyridine nucleotides and thereby stimulates a specific Ca2+ release from intact mitochondria. This release is prevented by cyclosporin A (CSA). Hydrogen peroxide thus contributes to the maintenance of cellular Ca2+ homeostasis. A stimulation of mitochondrial ROS production followed by an enhanced Ca2+ release and re uptake (Ca2+ 'cycling') by mitochondria causes apoptosis and necrosis, and contributes to hypoxia/reperfusion injury. These kinds of cell injury can be attenuated at the mitochondrial level by CSA. When ROS are produced in excessive amounts in mitochondria nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids are extensively modified by oxidation. Physiological (sub-micromolar) concentrations of NO potently and reversibly deenergize mitochondria at oxygen tensions that prevail in cells by transiently binding to cytochrome oxidase. This is paralleled by mitochondrial Ca2+ release and uptake. Higher NO concentrations or prolonged exposure of cells to NO causes their death. It is concluded that ROS and NO are important physiological reactants in mitochondria and become toxic only when present in excessive amounts.


Subject(s)
Disease , Mitochondria/metabolism , Nitric Oxide/physiology , Oxidants/metabolism , Reactive Oxygen Species/metabolism , Animals , Apoptosis , Calcium/metabolism , Cell Survival/drug effects , Glutathione/analogs & derivatives , Glutathione/pharmacology , Humans , Liver/cytology , Liver/drug effects , Nitroso Compounds/pharmacology , Oxidative Stress , Reference Values , S-Nitrosoglutathione
10.
Biochem Biophys Res Commun ; 205(2): 1143-50, 1994 Dec 15.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-7802643

ABSTRACT

We have recently shown (Schweizer, M., and Richter, C. (1994) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 204, 169-175) that nitric oxide (nitrogen monoxide, NO) at low concentrations potently and reversibly deenergizes isolated liver and brain mitochondria at oxygen concentrations that prevail in cells and tissues. We now report that also in freshly prepared hepatocytes NO deenergizes mitochondria. Deenergization is reversible at low, but longer-lasting at higher NO concentrations. The drop and the recovery of the mitochondrial membrane potential are accompanied by a rise and fall of cytosolic Ca2+ levels. At higher concentrations NO kills hepatocytes. Killing is reduced when the cytosolic Ca2+ is chelated, or when the cyclic uptake and release of Ca2+ ("Ca2+ cycling") by mitochondria is prevented. We conclude that NO can kill cells by deenergizing mitochondria and thereby flooding the cytosol with Ca2+.


Subject(s)
Calcium/metabolism , Liver/drug effects , Mitochondria, Liver/metabolism , Nitric Oxide/toxicity , Animals , Antimycin A/pharmacology , Carbonyl Cyanide m-Chlorophenyl Hydrazone/pharmacology , Cell Survival/drug effects , Cells, Cultured , Cytosol/metabolism , Dithiothreitol/pharmacology , Intracellular Membranes/physiology , Liver/pathology , Membrane Potentials/drug effects , Membrane Potentials/physiology , Microscopy, Confocal , Mitochondria, Liver/drug effects , Rats
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