ABSTRACT
Endosomally translocated host (self) DNA activates Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9), while extracellular self-DNA does not. This inconsistency reflects poor endosomal DNA translocation but also implies that host DNA contains DNA sequences that function as ligands for TLR9. Herein we report that contrary to phosphorothioate (PS)-stabilized oligonucleotides (ODN), "natural" phosphodiester (PD) ODN lacking CpG motifs activate TLR9. CpG motif-independent TLR9 activation of Flt3-L-induced dendritic cells (DC) was dependent on enforced endosomal translocation and triggered upregulation of CD40 and CD69 as well as production of IL-6 and IFN-alpha. Binding studies utilizing surface plasmon resonance technology (Biacore) revealed low TLR9 binding to single-stranded (ss) PD-ODN lacking CpG motifs. At higher concentrations their TLR9 binding activity compared well with TLR9 binding of canonical ss PD CpG-ODN. These results imply that both the chemical modification of the DNA backbone as well as the amount of endosomally translocated DNA represent determining factors that allow CpG motif-independent activation of TLR9 by ss PD-DNA.
Subject(s)
CpG Islands/immunology , DNA, Single-Stranded/immunology , Dendritic Cells/immunology , Endosomes/immunology , Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/immunology , Toll-Like Receptor 9/immunology , Animals , Biological Transport/drug effects , Biological Transport/immunology , Cells, Cultured , DNA, Single-Stranded/metabolism , DNA, Single-Stranded/pharmacology , Dendritic Cells/cytology , Dendritic Cells/metabolism , Endosomes/metabolism , Mice , Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/metabolism , Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/pharmacology , Protein Binding/drug effects , Protein Binding/immunology , Surface Plasmon Resonance/methods , Toll-Like Receptor 9/metabolismABSTRACT
TLRs discriminate foreign from self via their specificity for pathogen-derived invariant ligands, an example being TLR9 recognizing bacterial unmethylated CpG motifs. In this study we report that endosomal translocation of CpG DNA via the natural endocytotic pathway is inefficient and highly saturable, whereas endosomal translocation of DNA complexed to the cationic lipid N-[1-(2,3-dioleoyloxy)propyl]-N,N,N-trimethylammonium methylsulfate (DOTAP) is not. Interestingly, DOTAP-mediated enhanced endosomal translocation of otherwise nonstimulatory vertebrate DNA or of certain noncanonical CpG motifs triggers robust dendritic cell activation in terms of both up-regulation of CD40/CD69 and cytokine production, such as type I IFN and IL-6. We report that the stimulatory activity of phosphorothioated noncanonical CpG oligodeoxynucleotides is TLR9 dependent, whereas phosphodiester DNA, such as vertebrate DNA, in addition trigger TLR9-independent pathways. We propose that the inefficiency of the natural route for DNA internalization hinders low affinity TLR9 ligands in endosomes to reach threshold concentrations required for TLR9 activation. Endosomal compartmentalization of TLR9 may thus reflect an evolutionary strategy to avoid TLR9 activation by self-DNA.
Subject(s)
Adjuvants, Immunologic/metabolism , CpG Islands/immunology , DNA-Binding Proteins/physiology , DNA/metabolism , Dendritic Cells/immunology , Dendritic Cells/metabolism , Endosomes/metabolism , Receptors, Cell Surface/physiology , Signal Transduction/immunology , Adjuvants, Immunologic/administration & dosage , Adjuvants, Immunologic/genetics , Animals , Biological Transport, Active/genetics , Biological Transport, Active/immunology , DNA/administration & dosage , DNA/immunology , DNA-Binding Proteins/biosynthesis , DNA-Binding Proteins/deficiency , DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics , Endosomes/genetics , Endosomes/immunology , Fatty Acids, Monounsaturated/administration & dosage , Humans , Interleukin-6/biosynthesis , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Knockout , Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/immunology , Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/metabolism , Quaternary Ammonium Compounds/administration & dosage , Receptors, Cell Surface/biosynthesis , Receptors, Cell Surface/deficiency , Receptors, Cell Surface/genetics , Signal Transduction/genetics , Thionucleotides/immunology , Thionucleotides/metabolism , Toll-Like Receptor 9ABSTRACT
Type I IFN production in response to the DNA virus herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) is essential in controlling viral replication. We investigated whether plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) were the major tissue source of IFN-alpha, and whether the production of IFN-alpha in response to HSV-1 depended on Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9). Total spleen cells or bone marrow (BM) cells, or fractions thereof, including highly purified pDC, from WT, TLR9, and MyD88 knockout mice were stimulated with known ligands for TLR9 or active HSV-1. pDC freshly isolated from both spleen and BM were the major source of IFN-alpha in response to oligodeoxynucleotides containing CpG motifs, but in response to HSV-1 the majority of IFN-alpha was produced by other cell types. Moreover, IFN-alpha production by non-pDC was independent of TLR9. The tissue source determined whether pDC responded to HSV-1 in a strictly TLR9-dependent fashion. Freshly isolated BM pDC or pDC derived from culture of BM precursors with FMS-like tyrosine kinase-3 ligand, produced IFN-alpha in the absence of functional TLR9, whereas spleen pDC did not. Heat treatment of HSV-1 abolished maturation and IFN-alpha production from all TLR9-deficient DC but not WT DC. Thus pDC and non-pDC produce IFN-alpha in response to HSV-1 via both TLR9-independent and -dependent pathways.
