Examining the influence of episode number and age of onset on individual depressive symptoms across episodes of major depression.

Major depression is characterized by an episodic course with symptom manifestations differing across episodes. Previous work has found that symptom presentation differs across age. However, studies of symptom presentation have largely focused on symptoms in individual episodes, requiring further investigation of longitudinal symptom change. This study explored the impact of the initial age of onset, the number of episodes, and age of onset of each episode on individual depressive symptoms, while accounting for episode severity. We used data from the Oregon Adolescent Depression Project (N = 629) examining participants with at least one major depressive episode, assessed by diagnostic interview, across a 15-year follow-up. Multilevel logistic regression models revealed that approximately 20-25% of the main effects were significant and some were qualified by cross-level interactions. However, only a few associations remained robust after correcting for multiple comparisons. Specifically, older initial age of onset was associated with fatigue, younger initial age of onset for the first episode was associated with suicidal ideation, and a lower episode number was associated with weight loss. These findings highlight potential initial age of onset and scar effects influencing symptom manifestation, but require replication.

The Role of Aversive Appearance-Related Comparisons and Self-Discrepancy in Depression and Well-Being From a Longitudinal General Comparative-Processing Perspective.

Research indicates that aversive appearance-related comparisons (i.e., perceived as threatening one's own motives) are associated with depressive symptoms. However, central elements underlying the comparison process are poorly understood. Drawing on central propositions of comparison theory, we hypothesized that an increased aversive comparison frequency instigates high levels of perceived comparison discrepancy to the standard, resulting in an intensified negative affective impact. Consequently, this heightened affective impact is expected to elicit more depressive symptoms and lower psychological well-being. We additionally expected that these pathways are moderated by dispositional self-discrepancies. In a two-wave longitudinal study, participants with elevated depressive symptoms (N = 500) responded to measures of self-discrepancy, depressive symptoms, psychological well-being, and the Comparison Standards Scale for Appearance. The latter assesses aversive social, temporal, counterfactual, and criteria-based comparisons regarding their frequency, perceived discrepancy to the standard, and engendered affective impact. The affective impact after engaging in aversive appearance-related comparisons (partially) accounted for the relation between comparison discrepancy and subsequent depressive symptoms and psychological well-being. Perceived discrepancy to the aversive comparison standards was not a key variable in this process. Dispositional self-discrepancy emerged as moderator on different pathways. Clinical implications are discussed in light of central theoretical accounts from a general comparative-processing perspective.

Associations among posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, life satisfaction, and well-being comparisons: A longitudinal investigation.

Many individuals who encounter potentially traumatic events go on to develop symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Research suggests that survivors of traumatic events frequently compare their current well-being to different standards; yet, knowledge regarding the role of comparative thinking in well-being is limited to a few cross-sectional studies. We therefore examined the temporal associations among aversive well-being comparisons (i.e., comparisons threatening self-motives), PTSD symptoms, and life satisfaction in individuals exposed to traumatic events. Participants (N = 518) with a trauma history completed measures of PTSD symptoms and life satisfaction, as well as the Comparison Standards Scale for Well-being (CSS-W), at assessment points 3 months apart. The CSS-W assesses the frequency, perceived discrepancy, and affective impact of aversive social, temporal, counterfactual, and criteria-based comparisons related to well-being. All participants reported having engaged in aversive well-being comparisons during the last 3 weeks. Comparison frequency emerged as a significant predictor of PTSD symptoms, ß = .24, beyond baseline PTSD symptom severity. Life satisfaction contributed unique variance to the comparison process by predicting comparison frequency, ß = -.18; discrepancy, ß = -.24; and affective impact, ß = .20. The findings suggest that frequent aversive comparisons may lead to a persistent focus on negative aspects of well-being, thereby exacerbating PTSD symptoms, and further indicate that comparison frequency, discrepancy, and affective impact are significantly influenced by life satisfaction. Taken together, the findings support the need for a thorough examination of the role of comparative thinking in clinical populations, which may ultimately help improve clinical care.

Longitudinal and Gender Measurement Invariance of the General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12) From Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood.

Psychological distress often onsets during adolescence, necessitating an accurate understanding of its development. Assessing change in distress is based on the seldom examined premise of longitudinal measurement invariance (MI). Thus, we used three waves of data from Next Steps, a representative cohort of young people in the UK (N = 13,539) to examine MI of the General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12). We examined MI across time and gender from ages 15 to 25 in four competing latent models: (a) a single-factor model, (b) a three-factor correlated model, (c) a bifactor model of "general distress" and two orthogonal specific factors capturing positive and negative wording, and (d) a single-factor model including error covariances of negatively phrased items. We also tested acceptability of assumptions underlying sum score models. For all factor models, residual MI was confirmed from ages 15 to 25 years and across gender. The bifactor model had the best fit. While sum score model fit was not unequivocally acceptable, most mean differences across time and gender were equivalent across sum scores and latent difference scores. Thus, GHQ-12 sum scores may be used to assess change in psychological distress in young people. However, latent scores appear more accurate, and model fit can be improved by accounting for item wording.

Evaluation of the Scales for Social Comparison of Appearance and Social Comparison of Well-Being.

People constantly compare their appearance and well-being to that of other individuals. However, a measure of social comparison of well-being is lacking and existing appearance-related social comparison assessment is limited to comparison tendency using predefined social situations. This limits our understanding of the role of social comparison in appearance and well-being. Therefore, we developed the Scale for Social Comparison of Appearance (SSC-A) and the Scale for Social Comparison of Well-Being (SSC-W) to assess upward and downward social comparisons with regard to (a) frequency, (b) perceived discrepancy to the standard, and (c) engendered affective impact during the last 3 weeks. In one longitudinal and three cross-sectional studies (Ns = 500-1,121), we administered the SSC-A or SSC-W alongside measures of appearance social comparison, body satisfaction, self-concept, social rank, well-being, envy, rumination, depression, and anxiety. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the expected two-factor model representing upward and downward social comparison for both scales. Overall, upward comparison displayed the anticipated associations with the measured constructs, whereas downward comparison showed mostly small or nonsignificant correlations with the validators. The SSC-A and SSC-W are efficient measures of social comparison for appearance and well-being with good evidence for their reliability and validity in our samples.

The longitudinal relationship between well-being comparisons and anxiety symptoms in the context of uncontrollability of worries and external locus of control: a two-wave study.

BACKGROUND: Anxiety is a prevalent mental health condition. Comparisons of one's own well-being to different aversive standards may contribute to the development and maintenance of anxiety symptoms. OBJECTIVES: Our primary goal was to investigate whether aversive well-being comparisons predict anxiety symptoms and vice versa. Additionally, we aimed at examining exploratorily whether well-being comparisons are reciprocally related to metacognitive beliefs about worrying and external control beliefs. METHODS: In this two-wave longitudinal survey design, 922 participants completed measures of anxiety, metacognitions about the uncontrollability of worries, external locus of control, and the Comparison Standards Scale for Well-being (CSS-W) at two timepoints, three-months apart. The CSS-W assesses the frequency, perceived discrepancy, and affective impact of social, temporal, counterfactual, and criteria-based comparisons. RESULTS: When autoregressive effects were adjusted for, aversive comparison frequency, comparison affective impact, and uncontrollability of worries at the first timepoint predicted subsequent anxiety symptoms. Furthermore, well-being comparison frequency and discrepancy at the second timepoint were predicted by baseline anxiety symptoms. External locus of control predicted comparison frequency and discrepancy. CONCLUSIONS: Well-being comparisons contribute distinct variance to anxiety symptoms and vice versa, pointing to a vicious cirlcle of symptom escalation. These findings have significant implications for future research.

The associations among well-being comparisons and affective styles in depression, anxiety, and mental health quality of life.

OBJECTIVE: Frame-of-reference theories suggest that individuals use different comparison types to evaluate their well-being. Research indicates that the frequency of aversive well-being comparisons is related to depression, with engendered comparison affective impact partly accounting for this relationship. We aimed to replicate this finding, examine whether this extends to anxiety and mental health quality of life, and whether these pathways are moderated by affective styles of concealing, adjusting, and tolerating. We expected concealing as a response-focused style to be associated with higher effects of comparison affective impact on depression, anxiety, and mental health quality of life. Adjusting as an antecedent-focused strategy was expected to mitigate the effects of aversive comparison frequency on comparison affective impact, and the effects of comparison affective impact on the outcomes. Finally, tolerating was expected to be associated with lower effects on both pathways. METHODS AND MEASURES: Participants (N = 596) responded to measures of well-being comparisons, affective styles, depression, anxiety, and mental health quality of life. RESULTS: Frequency of aversive well-being comparisons was associated with all outcomes. These relationships were partially mediated by comparison affective impact. Adjustment moderated the pathway between aversive comparison frequency and comparison affective impact. No other moderation effect emerged. CONCLUSION: The comparison process appears important in well-being evaluations.

The development of depressive symptoms in older adults from a network perspective in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing.

An increased understanding of the interrelations between depressive symptoms among older populations could help improve interventions. However, studies often use sum scores to understand depression in older populations, neglecting important symptom dynamics that can be elucidated in evolving depressive symptom networks. We computed Cross-Lagged Panel Network Models (CLPN) of depression symptoms in 11,391 adults from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Adults aged 50 and above (mean age 65) were followed over 16 years throughout this nine-wave representative population study. Using the eight-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, we computed eight CLPNs covering each consecutive wave. Across waves, networks were consistent with respect to the strength of lagged associations (edge weights) and the degree of interrelationships among symptoms (centrality indices). Everything was an effort and could not get going displayed the strongest reciprocal cross-lagged associations across waves. These two symptoms and loneliness were core symptoms as reflected in strong incoming and outgoing connections. Feeling depressed was strongly predicted by other symptoms only (incoming but not strong outgoing connections were observed) and thus was not related to new symptom onset. Restless sleep had outgoing connections only and thus was a precursor to other depression symptoms. Being happy and enjoying life were the least central symptoms. This research underscores the relevance of somatic symptoms in evolving depression networks among older populations. Findings suggest the central symptoms from the present study (everything was an effort, could not get going, loneliness) may be potential key intervention targets to mitigate depression in older adults.

Comparison Is the Thief of Joy? Introducing the Attitudes Towards Social Comparison Inventory.

Social comparison has a significant impact on individuals' motivation, affect, and behavior. However, we lack a scale that captures individual differences in attitudes toward social comparison. To address this gap, we developed the Attitudes Toward Social Comparison Inventory (ASCI) drawing on existing scales that tap into metacognitive beliefs about worrying, self-motives, beliefs about emotions, and the general comparative-processing model. We examined the psychometric properties of the ASCI in a longitudinal study (N = 1,084), and a second (N = 550) and third cross-sectional study (N = 306). Through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, we identified a 12-item two-factor solution capturing positive and negative attitudes toward social comparison. The ASCI demonstrated measurement invariance across gender and time. The two factors were differentially and longitudinally associated with relevant constructs, including social comparison, metacognitive beliefs about worrying, depression, self-concept clarity, envy, and self-esteem. The ASCI facilitates comprehensive investigations of social comparison processes.

Predictors of time-varying and time-invariant components of psychological distress during COVID-19 in the U.K. Household Longitudinal Study (understanding society).

To understand psychological distress during COVID-19, we need to ensure that the same construct is measured over time and investigate how much of the variance in distress is attributable to chronic time-invariant variance compared to transient time-varying variance. We conducted secondary data analyses of Understanding Society, a U.K. probability-based longitudinal study of adults, using prepandemic (2015-2020) and pandemic data (N = 17,761, April 2020-March 2021). Using the General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12), analyses encompassed (a) five annual waves before COVID-19 plus the first survey wave during COVID-19 and (b) eight (bi)monthly waves during COVID-19. We investigated (a) longitudinal measurement invariance of distress, (b) time-invariant and time-varying variance components of distress using latent trait-occasion modeling, and (c) predictors of these different variance components. In all analyses, unique measurement invariance in distress was established, indicating the same unidimensional construct was measured using the GHQ before and during COVID-19. Time-varying variance was higher at the first COVID-19 lockdown (April 2020, 61.2%) compared to before COVID-19 (∼50%), suggesting increased fluctuations in distress at the start of the pandemic. Sensitivity analyses with equal time lags pre- and during COVID-19 confirmed this interpretation. During the pandemic, the highest distress time-varying variance (40.7%) was detected in April 2020, decreasing to 29.0% (July 2020) after restrictions eased. Despite mean-level fluctuations, time-varying variance remained stable during subsequent lockdowns, indicating more rank-order stability after this first major disruption. Loneliness most strongly predicted time-varying variance during the first lockdown. Life dissatisfaction and financial difficulties were associated with both variance components throughout the pandemic. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Depressive symptom networks in the UK general adolescent population and in those looked after by local authorities.

BACKGROUND: Despite the importance of understanding depressive symptom constellations during adolescence and specifically in looked-after children, studies often only apply sum score models to understand depression in these populations, neglecting associations among single symptoms that can be elucidated in network analysis. The few network analyses in adolescents have relied on different measures to assess depressive symptoms, contributing to inconsistent cross-study results. OBJECTIVE: In three population-based studies using the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire, we used network analyses to study depressive symptoms during adolescence and specifically in looked-after children. METHOD: We computed cross-sectional networks (Gaussian Graphical Model) in three separate datasets: the Mental Health of Children and Young People in Great Britain 1999 survey (n=4235, age 10-15 years), the mental health of young people looked after by local authorities in Great Britain 2002 survey (n=643, age 11-17 years) and the Millennium Cohort Study in the UK 2015 (n=11 176, age 14 years). FINDINGS: In all three networks, self-hate emerged as a key symptom, which aligns with former network studies. I was no good anymore was also among the most central symptoms. Among looked-after children, I was a bad person constituted a central symptom, while this was among the least central symptom in the other two datasets. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition symptom I did not enjoy anything was not central. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that looked-after children's depressive symptoms may be more affected by negative self-evaluation compared with the general population. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Intervention efforts may benefit from being tailored to negative self-evaluations.

Crying over spilled milk? A network analysis of aversive well-being comparison, brooding rumination and depressive symptoms.

BACKGROUND: Comparative thinking about one's well-being is ubiquitous. Comparisons that threaten an individual's self-motives are aversive and interact with rumination and depression. Aversive well-being comparisons include upward social, past temporal, counterfactual, and criteria-based comparisons, as well as downward prospective temporal comparisons. Although the frequency, discrepancy, and affective impact of aversive comparison total scores have been associated with brooding rumination and depression, no study has investigated the interaction of specific comparison standards (e.g., social or counterfactual) with symptom cascades of brooding and depressive symptoms. METHODS: To examine this interaction, we conducted network analyses on the interplay between aversive well-being comparisons, brooding rumination, and depression. Specifically, we conducted a cross-sectional study in N = 500 dysphoric individuals and a longitudinal study in N = 921 participants at two timepoints, three months apart. Participants completed measures of depression, brooding, and the Comparison Standards Scale for Well-being, which assessed the frequency, perceived discrepancy, and affective impact of aversive well-being comparisons. RESULTS: Feelings of worthlessness emerged as the most central attribute in the networks of the dysphoric sample. Longitudinally, brooding and depressive symptoms predicted aversive comparisons, but not the other way around, which accounted for social and other-referent counterfactual comparisons to a greater degree than for other comparison types. LIMITATIONS: We used nonclinical samples. CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight the critical role of comparison standards in depression. Further research is warranted to detect potential intervention targets for mitigating negative effects of negative self-evaluation.

Temporal dynamics in mental health symptoms and loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic in a longitudinal probability sample: a network analysis.

Figuring out which symptoms are central for symptom escalation during the COVID-19 pandemic is important for targeting prevention and intervention. Previous studies have contributed to the understanding of the course of psychological distress during the pandemic, but less is known about key symptoms of psychological distress over time. Going beyond a pathogenetic pathway perspective, we applied the network approach to psychopathology to examine how psychological distress unfolds in a period of maximum stress (pre-pandemic to pandemic onset) and a period of repeated stress (pandemic peak to pandemic peak). We conducted secondary data analyses with the Understanding Society data (N = 17,761), a longitudinal probability study in the UK with data before (2019), at the onset of (April 2020), and during the COVID-19 pandemic (November 2020 & January 2021). Using the General Health Questionnaire and one loneliness item, we computed three temporal cross-lagged panel network models to analyze psychological distress over time. Specifically, we computed (1) a pre-COVID to first incidence peak network, (2) a first incidence peak to second incidence peak network, and (3) a second incidence peak to third incidence peak network. All networks were highly consistent over time. Loneliness and thinking of self as worthless displayed a high influence on other symptoms. Feeling depressed and not overcoming difficulties had many incoming connections, thus constituting an end-product of symptom cascades. Our findings highlight the importance of loneliness and self-worth for psychological distress during COVID-19, which may have important implications in therapy and prevention. Prevention and intervention measures are discussed, as single session interventions are available that specifically target loneliness and worthlessness to alleviate mental health problems.

Self-efficacy and locus of control as transdiagnostic factors in Middle Eastern refugees.

Background: Many refugees report high levels of psychopathology. As a countermeasure, some psychological interventions aim at targeting mental health difficulties in refugees transdiagnostically. However, there is a lack of knowledge about relevant transdiagnostic factors in refugee populations.Objective: To inform intervention efforts empirically, we investigated whether self-efficacy and locus of control are transdiagnostically associated with symptoms of depression, anxiety, somatisation, psychological distress, and a higher-order psychopathology factor ('p') in Middle Eastern refugees residing in Germany.Method: In total, 200 Middle Eastern refugees took part in this cross-sectional study, comprising 160 male and 40 female refugees. Participants were, on average, 25.56 years old (SD = 9.19), and 182 (91%) originally came from Syria, while remaining refugees were from Iraq or Afghanistan. They completed measures of depression, anxiety, somatisation, self-efficacy, and locus of control.Results: In multiple regression models adjusting for demographic factors (gender and age), self-efficacy and external locus of control were transdiagnostically related to depression, anxiety, somatic symptoms, psychological distress, and a higher-order psychopathology factor. Internal locus of control had no detectable effect in these models.Conclusions: Self-efficacy and external locus of control appear critical in the mental health of refugees and may be important mechanisms in overcoming posttraumatic stress and resettlement stressors. Our findings support the need to target self-efficacy and external locus of control as transdiagnostic factors of general psychopathology in Middle Eastern refugees.

Middle Eastern refugees report high levels of psychopathology.Transdiagnostic interventions are often applied, yet knowledge about relevant transdiagnostic factors is scarce.Self-efficacy and external locus of control emerged as relevant transdiagnostic factors.

Aversive well-being comparisons in dysphoria and the role of brooding rumination.

OBJECTIVES: Individuals frequently engage in comparisons on how they are doing relative to different standards. According to the general comparative-processing model, comparisons can be perceived as aversive (appraised as threatening the motives of the comparer) or appetitive (appraised as consonant with, or positively challenging the motives). Research indicates that aversive comparisons are associated with depression. We hypothesize that aversive comparisons play a significant role in the relationship between brooding rumination and depression. Drawing on central propositions of control theory that discrepancies instigate rumination, we investigated the mediating role of brooding rumination in this relationship. Reflecting the different directionality, we also examined whether well-being comparisons mediate the relationship between brooding rumination and depression. METHODS: Dysphoric participants (N = 500) were administered measures of depression and brooding rumination, and the Comparison Standards Scale for Well-being. The latter assesses aversive social, temporal, counterfactual, and criteria-based comparisons regarding their (a) frequency, (b) perceived discrepancy to the standard, and (c) engendered affective valence. RESULTS: The relationship between the frequency of aversive comparisons with depression was partially accounted for by comparison discrepancy and engendered affective valence and brooding rumination. The relationship between rumination and depression was partially mediated by sequential comparison processes. CONCLUSIONS: Longitudinal research needs to unravel the underlying directionality of the relationship between depression, brooding, and comparison. Relevant clinical implications of well-being comparison are discussed.

The Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire from adolescence to emerging adulthood: Measurement invariance across time and sex.

Adolescence to emerging adulthood is a critical period for the onset of depressive symptoms. Understanding symptom change during this period is thus of great clinical relevance. This understanding is, however, based on the premise of the accurate measurement of depressive symptoms across time and sex, typically untested in applied research. The present study investigated longitudinal and sex measurement invariance (MI) of the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ), a widely used unidimensional 13-item measure of self-reported depressive symptoms. We employed 10 waves of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a population-based study in South-West England (N = 7,364; ages 11-26). The SMFQ exhibited increasing consistency with age: Scalar longitudinal MI was not supported by all indices in models that included ages 11 and 13, but strict MI was established from ages 14-26. At each wave, at least partial strict MI across sex was established. Sum score models with equal weightings had acceptable fit, and good reliability which was equivalent to reliability using differential weightings. External validity for sum scores was also comparable to factor scores. Thus, sum scores seem an appropriate, practical choice in many settings. Overall, findings support the use of SMFQ in assessing change in depressive symptoms from adolescence into emerging adulthood, specifically ages 14-26. Some caution is necessary when comparing the construct at ages 11-13 with ages greater than 17, when measurement models were not fully invariant. This research informs epidemiological and clinical studies on the applicability of the SMFQ across time and sex. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Psychotherapy motivation in refugees: The role of alexithymia, stigmatization, self-esteem, and psychotherapy expectations.

OBJECTIVE: Despite elevated mental health problems, refugees tend to hold more negative attitudes toward psychological help seeking than residents of receiving countries. Therefore, we examined variables expected to be related to different aspects of psychotherapy motivation (psychological distress, knowledge about therapy, and denial of psychological helplessness) in 202 German residents and 200 refugees in Germany. METHOD: Participants completed measures of psychotherapy motivation, together with alexithymia, stigmatization toward help seeking, self-esteem, and expectations of therapy as variables with an expected relationship with psychotherapy motivation. RESULTS: Refugees reported higher scores of psychological distress, more denial of psychological helplessness, and less knowledge about psychotherapy than residents. Refugees further reported higher levels of alexithymia and lower expectations for interpersonal and intrapersonal change in therapy compared to residents. In a pathway model, alexithymia, perceived stigmatization, self-esteem, and expectations for interpersonal changes emerged as critical variables associated with psychotherapy motivation. Alexithymia and expectations for interpersonal change partly accounted for group differences of reduced psychotherapy motivation in refugees. CONCLUSIONS: We discuss implications for practice and future research with respect to reducing treatment barriers and providing culturally-sensitive treatments for refugees suffering from psychological distress. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Assessing Somatic Symptoms With the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-15) in Syrian Refugees.

Somatic symptoms are common among Syrian refugees. To quantify somatic symptom load, sum score models derived from the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-15) have been frequently applied without psychometric justification. Across two studies (total N = 776), we (a) tested different PHQ-15 factor solutions in Syrian refugees, (b) investigated measurement invariance (MI) of the factor solutions compared with German residents, and (c) scrutinized whether sum score models adequately represent the data and differ in associations with external validators compared with factor scores. One-factor, three-factor, four-factor, and a reduced one-factor solution all displayed acceptable to good model fit. The four-factor solution showed the best fit, enabling differential symptom analyses. Sum score models often had poor model fit, necessitating independent investigations before applying them. For all factor solutions, (partial) strict MI between residents and refugees could be established. All scoring methods displayed high and comparable associations with functional impairment, depressive, and anxiety symptoms.

The Eight-Item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale in the English Longitudinal Study of Aging: Longitudinal and Gender Invariance, Sum Score Models, and External Associations.

The disease burden of depression among older populations is high. Detecting changes in late-life depression is predicated on the seldom-examined assumption of longitudinal measurement invariance (MI). Therefore, we investigated longitudinal MI of the 8-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale in core members repeatedly assessed in the English Longitudinal Study of Aging, a nine-wave representative study of the English population above 50 years of age (initial N = 11,391). Based on prior literature, we tested MI of a one-factor solution, a one-factor solution with correlated errors of reversely coded items, and a two-factor solution (depressed affect/somatic complaints). For all factor solutions, residual MI was confirmed across nine waves and gender. Sum score models (i.e., all factor loadings constrained to equity) had a good fit. Depression scores correlated with psychiatric diagnoses, ill health, lower life quality, and female gender. Associations slightly differed depending on the factor solutions, signifying their applicability across contexts.

Habitual aversive and appetitive well-being comparisons in dysphoria: Introducing the Comparison Standards Scale for well-being.

BACKGROUND: People are constantly preoccupied with how they are doing compared to different standards. This preoccupation influences judgments of well-being, including depression. However, research on well-being comparisons is scarce, also due to a lack of a measure of multi-standard comparisons. METHODS: Our research goals were twofold. First, we validated the Comparison Standards Scale for well-being (CSS-W). Second, by drawing on central propositions of the general comparative-processing model, we examined the association of habitual well-being comparisons, their perceived discrepancies with the standard, and engendered affect with depressive symptoms and psychological well-being in dysphoric participants (N = 500). The CSS-W assesses habitual social, temporal, counterfactual, and criteria-based upward and downward comparisons regarding their a) frequency, b) perceived discrepancy, and c) engendered affect. RESULTS: The findings confirmed the theoretically expected two-factor solution representing aversive (mostly upward) and appetitive (mostly downward) comparisons. Comparison frequency, discrepancy, and engendered affect were associated with depression and well-being. Yet, aversive comparisons displayed higher associations with the outcomes than appetitive comparisons. In particular, frequency of appetitive comparisons was not significantly correlated to depression. In line with our central theory-driven hypothesis, the relationship between frequency of aversive comparisons with depression was partially mediated by serial effects of comparison discrepancy and affect, whereas the relationship with well-being was fully mediated by comparison discrepancy and affect. LIMITATIONS: The cross-sectional design of the study does not allow for conclusions of causal relations between the measured variables. CONCLUSIONS: The presented framework proves useful in examining significant comparison processes in well-being and depression.