ABSTRACT
The Ras oncogene transmits signals, which regulate various cellular processes including cell motility, differentiation, growth and death. Since Ras signalling is abnormally activated in more than 30% of human cancers, Ras and its downstream signalling pathways are considered good targets for therapeutic interference. Ras is post-translationally modified by the addition of a farnesyl group, which permits its attachment to the plasma membrane. Exploiting this knowledge, a synthetic Ras inhibitor, S-trans, trans-farnesylthiosalicylic acid (FTS; Salirasib), was developed. FTS resembles the farnesylcysteine group of Ras, and acts as an effective Ras antagonist. In the present review, the effect of FTS in combination with various other drugs, as tested in vitro and in vivo, and its therapeutic potential are discussed. As reviewed, FTS cooperates with diverse therapeutic agents, which significantly improves treatment outcome. Therefore, combinations of FTS with other agents have a potential to serve as anti-cancer or anti-inflammatory therapies.
Subject(s)
Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology , Antineoplastic Combined Chemotherapy Protocols/pharmacology , Farnesol/analogs & derivatives , Neoplasms/drug therapy , Salicylates/pharmacology , Signal Transduction/drug effects , Animals , Anti-Inflammatory Agents/pharmacology , Farnesol/pharmacology , HumansABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: The ErbB receptors, Ras proteins and nucleolin are major contributors to malignant transformation. The pleiotropic protein nucleolin can bind to both Ras protein and ErbB receptors. Previously, we have demonstrated a crosstalk between Ras, nucleolin and the ErbB1 receptor. Activated Ras facilitates nucleolin interaction with ErbB1 and stabilizes ErbB1 levels. The three oncogenes synergistically facilitate anchorage independent growth and tumor growth in nude mice. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In the present study we used several cancer cell lines. The effect of Ras and nucleolin inhibition was determined using cell growth, cell death and cell motility assays. Protein expression was determined by immunohistochemistry. We found that inhibition of Ras and nucleolin reduces tumor cell growth, enhances cell death and inhibits anchorage independent growth. Our results reveal that the combined treatment affects Ras and nucleolin levels and localization. Our study also indicates that Salirasib (FTS, Ras inhibitor) reduces cell motility, which is not affected by the nucleolin inhibitor. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: These results suggest that targeting both nucleolin and Ras may represent an additional avenue for inhibiting cancers driven by these oncogenes.
Subject(s)
Carcinogenesis/metabolism , Cell Death/physiology , ErbB Receptors/metabolism , Phosphoproteins/metabolism , RNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism , ras Proteins/metabolism , Animals , Aptamers, Nucleotide , Cell Death/drug effects , Cell Line, Tumor , Cell Movement/drug effects , Cell Movement/physiology , Cell Proliferation/drug effects , Farnesol/analogs & derivatives , Farnesol/pharmacology , Humans , Immunoblotting , Immunohistochemistry , Mice , Mice, Nude , Microscopy, Fluorescence , Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/pharmacology , Phosphoproteins/antagonists & inhibitors , RNA-Binding Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Salicylates/pharmacology , ras Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , NucleolinABSTRACT
Autophagy, a process of regulated turnover of cellular constituents, is essential for normal growth control but may be defective under pathological conditions. The Ras/PI3K/mTOR signaling pathway negatively regulates autophagy. Ras signaling has been documented in a large number of human cancers. In this in-vitro study we examined the effect of the Ras inhibitor Salirasib (S-trans, trans-farnesylthiosalicylic acid; FTS) on autophagy induction and cell viability. We show that Ras inhibition by FTS induced autophagy in several cell lines, including mouse embryonic fibroblasts and the human cancer cell lines HeLa, HCT-116 and DLD-1. The autophagy induced by FTS seems to inhibit the cell death induced by FTS, since in the absence of autophagy the death of FTS-treated cells was enhanced. Therefore, inhibition of autophagy may promote the inhibition of tumor cell growth and the cell death mediated by FTS.
Subject(s)
Autophagy/drug effects , Farnesol/analogs & derivatives , Salicylates/pharmacology , ras Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Animals , Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology , Autophagy-Related Protein 5 , Cell Line, Tumor , Cell Survival/drug effects , Cells, Cultured , Dose-Response Relationship, Drug , Embryo, Mammalian/cytology , Farnesol/pharmacology , Fibroblasts/cytology , Fibroblasts/drug effects , Fibroblasts/metabolism , Green Fluorescent Proteins/genetics , Green Fluorescent Proteins/metabolism , HCT116 Cells , HeLa Cells , Humans , Immunoblotting , Mice , Mice, Knockout , Microscopy, Fluorescence , Microtubule-Associated Proteins/deficiency , Microtubule-Associated Proteins/genetics , Microtubule-Associated Proteins/metabolism , ras Proteins/metabolismABSTRACT
Alterations in the ErbB family of growth factor receptors, their signaling components, and mutational activation of Ras proteins are major contributors to malignant transformation. Recently, mutant Ras was shown to be capable of activating ErbB receptors in a ligand-independent manner. Furthermore, it was observed that nucleolin, a transcriptional regulator and ribosome biogenesis factor, can bind both K-Ras and the cytoplasmic tail of ErbB receptors to enhance ErbB receptor activation. However, the functional significance of these interactions to cancer pathogenesis has not been probed. Here, we show that endogenous nucleolin interacts simultaneously in vivo with endogenous Ras and ErbB1 (EGFR) in cancer cells. The C-terminal 212 amino acids of nucleolin were determined to be sufficient to interact with ErbB1 and all Ras protein isoforms (H-, N-, and K-Ras). Nucleolin partially colocalizes with Ras at the plasma membrane. Moreover, activated but not wild-type Ras facilitates nucleolin interaction with ErbB1 and stabilizes ErbB1 receptor levels. Most importantly, these three oncogenes synergistically facilitate anchorage-independent cell growth in vitro and tumor growth in vivo. Our findings suggest strategies to target nucleolin as a general approach to inhibiting ErbB- and Ras-driven cancers.
Subject(s)
ErbB Receptors/metabolism , Mutant Proteins/metabolism , Phosphoproteins/metabolism , RNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism , ras Proteins/metabolism , Animals , Cell Line , Cell Line, Tumor , Cell Membrane/metabolism , Cell Transformation, Neoplastic/genetics , ErbB Receptors/genetics , Green Fluorescent Proteins/genetics , Green Fluorescent Proteins/metabolism , HEK293 Cells , Humans , Immunoblotting , Immunoprecipitation , Mice , Mice, Nude , Microscopy, Confocal , Mutant Proteins/genetics , Mutation , Neoplasms, Experimental/genetics , Neoplasms, Experimental/metabolism , Neoplasms, Experimental/pathology , Phosphoproteins/genetics , Protein Binding , RNA-Binding Proteins/genetics , Transplantation, Heterologous , ras Proteins/genetics , NucleolinABSTRACT
A novel methodology for the evaluation of receptor arrangement in structurally flexible anion chemosensors was developed and applied to map the binding site of a new pseudocyclic tristhiourea chemosensor (6). The syntheses of 6 and related macrocyclic chemosensor 10 (a model of the folded monomeric structure of 6) are reported. Both chemosensors were evaluated by titration with a variety of structurally different anions in CH3Cl and DMSO, showing a common preference for F-, CH3CO2-, and H2PO4-. However, within this group of anions, the binding patterns of the chemosensors differed, indicating dissimilarity in the arrangement of the binding sites of 6 and 10.
