ABSTRACT
Red coloration is a salient feature of the natural world. Many vertebrates produce red color by converting dietary yellow carotenoids into red ketocarotenoids via an unknown mechanism. Here, we show that two enzymes, cytochrome P450 2J19 (CYP2J19) and 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase 1-like (BDH1L), are sufficient to catalyze this conversion. In birds, both enzymes are expressed at the sites of ketocarotenoid biosynthesis (feather follicles and red cone photoreceptors), and genetic evidence implicates these enzymes in yellow/red color variation in feathers. In fish, the homologs of CYP2J19 and BDH1L are required for ketocarotenoid production, and we show that these enzymes are sufficient to produce ketocarotenoids in cell culture and when ectopically expressed in fish skin. Finally, we demonstrate that the red-cone-enriched tetratricopeptide repeat protein 39B (TTC39B) enhances ketocarotenoid production when co-expressed with CYP2J19 and BDH1L. The discovery of this mechanism of ketocarotenoid biosynthesis has major implications for understanding the evolution of color diversity in vertebrates.
Subject(s)
Hydroxybutyrate Dehydrogenase , Pigmentation , Animals , Birds/genetics , Carotenoids , Cytochrome P-450 Enzyme System/genetics , Feathers , Pigmentation/geneticsABSTRACT
Organisms may internally or behaviorally regulate their body temperatures or conform to the ambient air temperatures. Previous evidence is mixed on whether wing pigmentation influences thermoregulation in various odonates.We investigated the thermal response of sympatric North American Calopteryx aequabilis and Calopteryx maculata with a thermal imaging study across a 25°C ambient temperature range.We found that regressions of thorax temperature on ambient temperature standardized by species had similar slopes for male and female C. maculata, but females were consistently 1.5°C warmer than males. In contrast, the sexes of C. aequabilis differed in slope, with C. aequabilis females having a slope less than 1.0 and males having a slope greater than 1.0.We found that regressions of thorax temperature on ambient temperature standardized by sex had similar slopes for males and females of both species, but C. maculata females were consistently 2.1°C warmer than C. aequabilis females.Given that C. aequabilis is strongly sexually dimorphic in pigment, but C. maculata is not, our findings suggest that wing pigmentation may influence thermal response rate in sympatric populations of both species.
ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Prevailing theories and treatments of female stress urinary incontinence are built on 120 years of evolution in understanding the structure and function of the female bladder neck and urethra and of considering why treatments failed. In our management of patients, it is important to understand and appreciate how our management of female stress urinary incontinence has evolved and which treatments have prevailed as we advance our knowledge for future treatments. AIMS: The purpose of this review is to describe how advances in technology impacted and shaped prevailing theories or understanding of the pathophysiology of stress urinary incontinence and influences our treatment approach. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An extensive literature search was performed from 1900 to present identifying articles that discussed technological advancements in female urology, theories of female stress incontinence, and treatments. RESULTS: The literature from the 20th century to the present shows a nonlinear evolution of the pathophysiological mechanism of stress urinary incontinence (SUI) from a notion of SUI and secondary to a simple anatomic finding to consideration of the effects of neurophysiologic pathways on SUI. Slings, however, have been a staple in the management of SUI. CONCLUSIONS: The pubovaginal sling (PVS) is a procedure that, with minor modifications (graft size, suture preference) has withstood the test of time and maintained its place in the armamentarium of SUI treatment for 100 years. It is therefore imperative that we continue to educate our residents and fellows on the surgical techniques and indications for use of the PVS.
