ABSTRACT
Recent studies suggest that primary changes in vascular resistance can cause sustained changes in arterial blood pressure. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about Cl(-) homeostasis in vascular smooth muscle cells. Within vascular smooth muscle cells, Cl(-) is accumulated above the electrochemical equilibrium, causing Cl(-) efflux, membrane depolarization, and increased contractile force when Cl(-) channels are opened. At least two different transport mechanisms contribute to raise [Cl(-)] i in vascular smooth muscle cells, anion exchange, and cation-chloride cotransport. Recent work suggests that TMEM16A-associated Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) currents mediate Cl(-) efflux in vascular smooth muscle cells leading to vasoconstriction. Additional proteins associated with Cl(-) flux in vascular smooth muscle are bestrophins, which modulate vasomotion, the volume-activated LRRC8, and the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). Cl(-) transporters and Cl(-) channels in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) significantly contribute to the physiological regulation of vascular tone and arterial blood pressure.
Subject(s)
Blood Pressure , Chloride Channels/metabolism , Chlorides/metabolism , Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/metabolism , Vasoconstriction , Animals , Humans , Ion Transport , Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/physiologyABSTRACT
High blood pressure is the leading risk factor for death worldwide. One of the hallmarks is a rise of peripheral vascular resistance, which largely depends on arteriole tone. Ca2+-activated chloride currents (CaCCs) in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are candidates for increasing vascular contractility. We analyzed the vascular tree and identified substantial CaCCs in VSMCs of the aorta and carotid arteries. CaCCs were small or absent in VSMCs of medium-sized vessels such as mesenteric arteries and larger retinal arterioles. In small vessels of the retina, brain, and skeletal muscle, where contractile intermediate cells or pericytes gradually replace VSMCs, CaCCs were particularly large. Targeted disruption of the calcium-activated chloride channel TMEM16A, also known as ANO1, in VSMCs, intermediate cells, and pericytes eliminated CaCCs in all vessels studied. Mice lacking vascular TMEM16A had lower systemic blood pressure and a decreased hypertensive response following vasoconstrictor treatment. There was no difference in contractility of medium-sized mesenteric arteries; however, responsiveness of the aorta and small retinal arterioles to the vasoconstriction-inducing drug U46619 was reduced. TMEM16A also was required for peripheral blood vessel contractility, as the response to U46619 was attenuated in isolated perfused hind limbs from mutant mice. Out data suggest that TMEM16A plays a general role in arteriolar and capillary blood flow and is a promising target for the treatment of hypertension.
Subject(s)
Blood Pressure/drug effects , Chloride Channels/metabolism , Hypertension/physiopathology , 15-Hydroxy-11 alpha,9 alpha-(epoxymethano)prosta-5,13-dienoic Acid/pharmacology , Animals , Anoctamin-1 , Arterioles/pathology , Blood Pressure/physiology , Brain/metabolism , Cloning, Molecular , DNA, Complementary/metabolism , Electrophysiology , Estrogen Antagonists/pharmacology , HEK293 Cells , Humans , Hypertension/drug therapy , Membrane Potentials/drug effects , Mesenteric Arteries/pathology , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Knockout , Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/cytology , Neoplasm Proteins/metabolism , Pericytes/metabolism , Retina/metabolism , Tamoxifen/pharmacology , Time Factors , Vascular Resistance , Vasoconstrictor Agents/pharmacologyABSTRACT
Crystal structures of bacterial CLC proteins were solved recently, but it is unclear to which level of detail they can be extrapolated to mammalian chloride channels. Exploiting the difference in inhibition by 9-anthracene carboxylic acid (9-AC) between ClC-0, -1, and -2, we identified a serine between helices O and P as crucial for 9-AC binding. Mutagenesis based on the crystal structure identified further residues affecting inhibitor binding. They surround a partially hydrophobic pocket close to the chloride binding site that is accessible from the cytoplasm, consistent with the observed intracellular block by 9-AC. Mutations in presumably Cl--coordinating residues yield additional insights into the structure and function of ClC-1. Our work shows that the structure of bacterial CLCs can be extrapolated with fidelity to mammalian Cl- channels.
