Predicting the odds of chronic wasting disease with Habitat Risk software.

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy that was first detected in captive cervids in Colorado, United States (US) in 1967, but has since spread into free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) across the US and Canada as well as to Scandinavia and South Korea. In some areas, the disease is considered endemic in wild deer populations, and governmental wildlife agencies have employed epidemiological models to understand long-term environmental risk. However, continued rapid spread of CWD into new regions of the continent has underscored the need for extension of these models into broader tools applicable for wide use by wildlife agencies. Additionally, efforts to semi-automate models will facilitate access of technical scientific methods to broader users. We introduce software (Habitat Risk) designed to link a previously published epidemiological model with spatially referenced environmental and disease testing data to enable agency personnel to make up-to-date, localized, data-driven predictions regarding the odds of CWD detection in surrounding areas after an outbreak is discovered. Habitat Risk requires pre-processing publicly available environmental datasets and standardization of disease testing (surveillance) data, after which an autonomous computational workflow terminates in a user interface that displays an interactive map of disease risk. We demonstrated the use of the Habitat Risk software with surveillance data of white-tailed deer from Tennessee, USA.

Large-scale assessment of genetic structure to assess risk of populations of a large herbivore to disease.

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) can spread among cervids by direct and indirect transmission, the former being more likely in emerging areas. Identifying subpopulations allows the delineation of focal areas to target for intervention. We aimed to assess the population structure of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the northeastern United States at a regional scale to inform managers regarding gene flow throughout the region. We genotyped 10 microsatellites in 5701 wild deer samples from Maryland, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. We evaluated the distribution of genetic variability through spatial principal component analysis and inferred genetic structure using non-spatial and spatial Bayesian clustering algorithms (BCAs). We simulated populations representing each inferred wild cluster, wild deer in each state and each physiographic province, total wild population, and a captive population. We conducted genetic assignment tests using these potential sources, calculating the probability of samples being correctly assigned to their origin. Non-spatial BCA identified two clusters across the region, while spatial BCA suggested a maximum of nine clusters. Assignment tests correctly placed deer into captive or wild origin in most cases (94%), as previously reported, but performance varied when assigning wild deer to more specific origins. Assignments to clusters inferred via non-spatial BCA performed well, but efficiency was greatly reduced when assigning samples to clusters inferred via spatial BCA. Differences between spatial BCA clusters are not strong enough to make assignment tests a reliable method for inferring the geographic origin of deer using 10 microsatellites. However, the genetic distinction between clusters may indicate natural and anthropogenic barriers of interest for management.

Detection and characterization of novel luchacoviruses, genus Alphacoronavirus, in saliva and feces of meso-carnivores in the northeastern United States.

IMPORTANCE: Several coronaviruses (CoVs) have been detected in domesticated, farmed, and wild meso-carnivores, causing a wide range of diseases and infecting diverse species, highlighting their important but understudied role in the epidemiology of these viruses. Assessing the viral diversity hosted in wildlife species is essential to understand their significance in the cross-species transmission of CoVs. Our focus here was on CoV discovery in meso-carnivores in the Northeast United States as a potential "hotspot" area with high density of humans and urban wildlife. This study identifies novel alphacoronaviruses circulating in multiple free-ranging wild and domestic species in this area and explores their potential epidemiological importance based on regions of the Spike gene, which are relevant for virus-host interactions.

Detection and characterization of novel luchacoviruses, genus Alphacoronavirus, shed in saliva and feces of meso-carnivores in the northeastern United States.

Small to mid-sized carnivores, or meso-carnivores, comprise a group of diverse mammals, many of which can adapt to anthropogenically disturbed environments. Wild meso-carnivores living in urban areas may get exposed to or spread pathogens to other species, including stray/feral domestic animals. Several coronaviruses (CoVs) have been detected in domesticated and farmed meso-carnivores, but knowledge of CoVs circulating in free-ranging wild meso-carnivores remains limited. In this study, we analyzed 321 samples collected between 2016 and 2022 from 9 species of free-ranging wild meso-carnivores and stray/feral domestic cats in the northeastern United States. Using a pan-CoV PCR, we screened tissues, feces, and saliva, nasal, and rectal swabs. We detected CoV RNA in fecal and saliva samples of animals in four species: fisher (Pekania pennanti), bobcat (Lynx rufus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and domestic cat (Felis catus). Next-generation sequencing revealed that all these viruses belonged to the Luchacovirus subgenus (Alphacoronavirus genus), previously reported only in rodents and lagomorphs (i.e., rabbits). Genetic comparison of the 3'-end of the genome (~12,000bp) revealed that although the viruses detected group with, and have a genetic organization similar to other luchacoviruses, they are genetically distinct from those from rodents and lagomorphs. Genetic characterization of the spike protein revealed that the meso-carnivore luchacoviruses do not have an S1/S2 cleavage motif but do have highly variable structural loops containing cleavage motifs similar to those identified in certain pathogenic CoVs. This study highlights the importance of characterizing the spike protein of CoVs in wild species for further targeted epidemiologic monitoring.

NOVEL REPORT OF THE EUROPEAN VARIANT OF ECHINOCOCCUS MULTILOCULARIS IN COYOTES (CANIS LATRANS) IN NEW YORK STATE.

Echinococcus multilocularis is a zoonotic cestode that can infect wildlife, domestic animals, and humans. In humans, infection with the larval stage of the parasite causes the disease alveolar echinococcosis, which can be fatal if left untreated. Surveillance for the parasite in New York State occurred during the 2021-2022 coyote (Canis latrans) hunting season. Fecal samples and the gastrointestinal tracts (GIT) from 43 coyote carcasses were collected from hunters and trappers across 8 counties. Fecal samples were screened for E. multilocularis DNA using a multiplex PCR. Three samples tested positive for E. multilocularis DNA. Subsequently, adult cestodes were collected from GIT samples using the sedimentation, filtration, and counting technique. Phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences from the nad2 and cob genes from individual worms indicated these New York sequences cluster with E. multilocularis sequences from Europe. This is the first report of adult E. multilocularis cestodes in New York State, as well as the first detection of the European haplotype of E. multilocularis in wildlife in the northeastern United States.

Infection and tissue distribution of highly pathogenic avian influenza A type H5N1 (clade 2.3.4.4b) in red fox kits (Vulpes vulpes).

Avian influenza H5N1 is a highly pathogenic virus that primarily affects birds. However, it can also infect other animal species, including mammals. We report the infection of nine juvenile red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) with Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A type H5N1 (Clade 2.3.4.4b) in the spring of 2022 in the central, western, and northern regions of New York, USA. The foxes displayed neurologic signs, and examination of brain and lung tissue revealed lesions, with brain lesions ranging from moderate to severe meningoencephalitis. Analysis of tissue tropism using RT-PCR methods showed a comparatively lower Ct value in the brain, which was confirmed by in situ hybridization targeting Influenza A RNA. The viral RNA labelling was highly clustered and overlapped the brain lesions, observed in neurons, and grey matter. Whole viral genome sequences obtained from the affected foxes were subjected to phylogenetic and mutation analysis to determine influenza A clade, host specificity, and potential occurrence of viral reassortment. Infections in red foxes likely occurred due to preying on infected wild birds and are unlikely due to transmission between foxes or other mammals.

Immune priming prior to pathogen exposure sheds light on the relationship between host, microbiome and pathogen in disease.

Dynamic interactions between host, pathogen and host-associated microbiome dictate infection outcomes. Pathogens including Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) threaten global biodiversity, but conservation efforts are hindered by limited understanding of amphibian host, Bd and microbiome interactions. We conducted a vaccination and infection experiment using Eastern hellbender salamanders (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis) challenged with Bd to observe infection, skin microbial communities and gene expression of host skin, pathogen and microbiome throughout the experiment. Most animals survived high Bd loads regardless of their vaccination status and vaccination did not affect pathogen load, but host gene expression differed based on vaccination. Oral vaccination (exposure to killed Bd) stimulated immune gene upregulation while topically and sham-vaccinated animals did not significantly upregulate immune genes. In early infection, topically vaccinated animals upregulated immune genes but orally and sham-vaccinated animals downregulated immune genes. Bd increased pathogenicity-associated gene expression in late infection when Bd loads were highest. The microbiome was altered by Bd, but there was no correlation between anti-Bd microbe abundance or richness and pathogen burden. Our observations suggest that hellbenders initially generate a vigorous immune response to Bd, which is ineffective at controlling disease and is subsequently modulated. Interactions with antifungal skin microbiota did not influence disease progression.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) may serve as a wildlife reservoir for nearly extinct SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern.

The spillover of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from humans to white-tailed deer (WTD) and its ability to transmit from deer to deer raised concerns about the role of WTD in the epidemiology and ecology of the virus. Here, we present a comprehensive cross-sectional study assessing the prevalence, genetic diversity, and evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in WTD in the State of New York (NY). A total of 5,462 retropharyngeal lymph node samples collected from free-ranging hunter-harvested WTD during the hunting seasons of 2020 (Season 1, September to December 2020, n = 2,700) and 2021 (Season 2, September to December 2021, n = 2,762) were tested by SARS-CoV-2 real-time RT-PCR (rRT-PCR). SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in 17 samples (0.6%) from Season 1 and in 583 samples (21.1%) from Season 2. Hotspots of infection were identified in multiple confined geographic areas of NY. Sequence analysis of SARS-CoV-2 genomes from 164 samples demonstrated the presence of multiple SARS-CoV-2 lineages and the cocirculation of three major variants of concern (VOCs) (Alpha, Gamma, and Delta) in WTD. Our analysis suggests the occurrence of multiple spillover events (human to deer) of the Alpha and Delta lineages with subsequent deer-to-deer transmission and adaptation of the viruses. Detection of Alpha and Gamma variants in WTD long after their broad circulation in humans in NY suggests that WTD may serve as a wildlife reservoir for VOCs no longer circulating in humans. Thus, implementation of continuous surveillance programs to monitor SARS-CoV-2 dynamics in WTD is warranted, and measures to minimize virus transmission between humans and animals are urgently needed.

OCCURRENCE OF MANGE IN AMERICAN BLACK BEARS (URSUS AMERICANUS) IN NEW YORK STATE, USA.

Mange, a parasitic skin disease caused by various species of mites, is found in free-ranging wildlife populations and has been increasingly reported in American black bears (Ursus americanus) over the last decade in New York State (NYS), USA. Our goal was to describe the geographic, seasonal, and demographic factors associated with mange in this species in NYS. Our retrospective study used historic, opportunistic data from diagnostic necropsy records and visual sighting reports collected by the NYS Wildlife Health Program from 2009 to 2018. We used chi-square tests for independence and odds ratios to examine whether geographic location, year, season, sex, age, and reason for laboratory submission were associated with mange in bears. We used maps and seasonal analysis to investigate emerging patterns. We confirmed increased black bear mange reports in recent years. Necropsy data revealed more bears submitted to the laboratory because of mange, mainly caused by Sarcoptes scabiei; females were more likely than males to present with sarcoptic mange. We found that cases of mange in the Northern Zone were widely disseminated throughout the region, whereas cases in the Southern Zone were concentrated in two areas along the Pennsylvania border. Seasonally, mange cases showed peaks occurring in late spring to early summer and in fall. Our results were on the basis of available data; a comprehensive statewide surveillance program would be useful to better understand the apparent increase in mange and its potential impact on both the welfare of individual animals and the population of black bears in NYS. Additional research on the timing of transmission dynamics associated with females in winter dens may be helpful to wildlife managers to identify strategies to mitigate deleterious spread of the disease in black bears.

Species, causes, and outcomes of wildlife rehabilitation in New York State.

Wildlife rehabilitation is a publicly popular practice, though not without controversy. State wildlife agencies frequently debate the ecological impact of rehabilitation. By analyzing case records, we can clarify and quantify the causes for rehabilitation, species involved, and treatment outcomes. This data would aid regulatory agencies and rehabilitators in making informed decisions, as well as gaining insight into causes of species mortality. In New York State, the Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) has licensed rehabilitators since 1980 and annual reporting is required. In this study, we analyzed 58,185 individual wildlife cases that were attended by New York rehabilitators between 2012 and 2014. These encompassed 30,182 (51.9%) birds, 25,447 (43.7%) mammals, 2,421 (4.2%) reptiles, and 75 (0.1%) amphibians. We identified patterns among taxonomic representation, reasons for presentation to a rehabilitation center, and animal disposition. Major causes of presentation were trauma (n = 22,156; 38.1%) and orphaning (n = 21,679; 37.3%), with habitat loss (n = 3,937; 6.8%), infectious disease (n = 1,824; 3.1%), and poisoning or toxin exposure (n = 806; 1.4%) playing lesser roles. The overall release rate for animals receiving care was 50.2% while 45.3% died or were euthanized during the rehabilitation process. A relatively small number (0.3%) were permanently non-releasable and placed in captivity; 4.1% had unknown outcomes. A comparable evaluation in 1989 revealed that wildlife submissions have increased (annual mean 12,583 vs 19,395), and are accompanied by a significant improvement in release (50.2% in the study period vs 44.4% in 1989) (χ2(1) = 90.43, p < 0.0001). In this manuscript, we aim to describe the rehabilitator community in New York State, and present the causes and outcomes for rehabilitation over a three-year period.

SENTINEL COYOTE PATHOGEN SURVEY TO ASSESS DECLINING BLACK-FOOTED FERRET (MUSTELA NIGRIPES) POPULATION IN SOUTH DAKOTA, USA.

As part of the national recovery effort, endangered black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) were reintroduced to the Cheyenne River Sioux Reservation in South Dakota, US in 2000. Despite an encouraging start, numbers of ferrets at the site have declined. In an effort to determine possible causes of the population decline, we undertook a pathogen survey in 2012 to detect exposure to West Nile virus (WNV), canine distemper virus (CDV), plague (Yersinia pestis), tularemia (Francisella tularensis), and heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis) using coyotes (Canis latrans) as a sentinel animal. The highest seroprevalence was for WNV with 71% (20/28) of coyotes testing antibody-positive. Seroprevalence of CDV and plague were lower, 27% and 13%, respectively. No evidence of active infection with tularemia or heartworm was seen in the coyotes sampled. As this study did not sample black-footed ferrets themselves, the definitive cause for the decline of this population cannot be determined. However, the presence of coyotes seropositive for two diseases, plague and CDV, lethal to black-footed ferrets, indicated the potential for exposure and infection. The high seroprevalence of WNV in the coyotes indicated a wide exposure to the virus; therefore, exposure of black-footed ferrets to the virus is also likely. Due to the ability of WNV to cause fatal disease in other species, studies may be useful to elucidate the impact that WNV could have on the success of reintroduced black-footed ferrets as well as factors influencing the spread and incidence of the disease in a prairie ecosystem.

CANINE DISTEMPER VIRUS IN THE SEA OTTER (ENHYDRA LUTRIS) POPULATION IN WASHINGTON STATE, USA.

Before 2001, all serosurveys for morbilliviruses in sea otters (Enhydra lutris) in California, Washington, and Alaska, US, documented a 0% seroprevalence. The first published serologic detections of morbillivirus in sea otters occurred in 2001-02 in live-captured Washington sea otters, with a documented 80% seroprevalence. We conducted a retrospective study of sea otter cases from 1989 to 2010 compiled at the US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center to identify cases of morbilliviral disease in Washington sea otters and to characterize the disease using immunohistochemistry, reverse transcription (RT)-PCR, genetic sequencing, virus isolation, and serology. We identified six cases of morbilliviral disease and 12 cases of morbilliviral infection in this population of sea otters during 2000-10. Significant histologic findings included inflammation in the white and gray matter of the brain characterized by lymphoplasmacytic perivascular cuffing, neuronal necrosis, and satellitosis in gray matter and by spongiosis, myelin degeneration, spheroids, and gemistocytes in white matter. Intranuclear and intracytoplasmic viral inclusion bodies were found in neurons, Purkinje cells, and glia. Immunohistochemistry for canine distemper virus (CDV) showed positive staining in neurons, glial cells, and cell processes. A pan-morbillivirus RT-PCR with subsequent restriction endonuclease digestion or sequencing identified CDV. Virus isolation was not successful. Two sea otters with morbilliviral encephalitis showed greater antibody titers to CDV than phocine distemper virus. Histologic changes were confined to the central nervous system and resembled neurologic canine distemper in domestic dogs. Cases of sea otters with morbilliviral infection without histologic changes could represent early infections or incompletely cleared sublethal infections. We found that morbillivirus was present in the Washington sea otter population as early as 2000, and we provide a description of the pathology of canine distemper in sea otters.

Partnering with Taxidermists for Improved Chronic Wasting Disease Surveillance.

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a neurodegenerative disease of cervids caused by a misfolded protein called a prion. This disease affects captive and free-ranging deer, moose, elk, and reindeer, and has been detected in 26 states. Cervids infected with CWD may be asymptomatic for months or years. In most areas, older male deer have higher prevalence rates. Prior to 2013, CWD surveillance in New York State focused on testing samples of convenience, by collecting deer heads from meat processors. However, this sampling was biased because many of the heads from older male deer were taken to taxidermists to be mounted. In 2013, the Taxidermy Partnership Program (TPP) was created to train taxidermists to collect CWD samples, and to increase the proportion of older male deer submitted for CWD testing. Added benefits include improved communication with taxidermists and increased awareness about CWD. Trained taxidermists were able to successfully collect and submit tissue samples with few errors. Participating taxidermists were paid for viable samples. Currently, there is a stable number of taxidermists that participate each year. This program has proven to be a valuable resource for obtaining high-value CWD samples for the wildlife agency, requiring a minimal amount of funding and time.

A NOVEL ORTHOREOVIRUS ASSOCIATED WITH EPIZOOTIC NECROTIZING ENTERITIS AND SPLENIC NECROSIS IN AMERICAN CROWS (CORVUS BRACHYRHYNCHOS).

Epizootic mortalities in American Crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) during the winter months, referred to as winter mortality of crows, have been recorded in North America for almost two decades. The most common postmortem findings include necrotizing enteritis, colitis, and fibrinous splenic necrosis. These findings are proposed to be due to infection with a Reovirus sp. Our objectives were to characterize the pathology and seasonality of the epizootics in New York State (NYS), confirm the causative role of an Orthoreovirus sp., and determine its phylogeny. On the basis of our proposed case definition for reovirosis, we examined case data collected by the NYS Wildlife Health Program for 16 yr. A total of 558 cases of reovirosis were recorded between 2001 and 2017. Reovirosis had a clear seasonal presentation: cases occurred almost exclusively in winter months (71% in December-January). Detailed data from a 2-yr period (2016-17) demonstrated that reovirosis caused up to 70% of all recorded crow deaths during epizootic months. Crows with positive orthoreovirus isolation from the spleen or intestine were 32 times more likely to die with characteristic histologic lesions of enteritis or enterocolitis and splenic necrosis than crows with negative isolation results. An in situ hybridization probe specific to virus isolated from NYS crow reovirosis cases demonstrated a direct association between viral presence and characteristic histologic lesions. Sigma C (capsid protein) sequences of isolates from NYS crows showed high homology with Tvärminne avian virus, recently proposed as a novel Corvus orthoreovirus clade, and only distantly related to the avian orthoreovirus clade. Our study indicated that a novel orthoreovirus was the cause of winter mortality (or reovirosis) of American Crows and placed the NYS isolates in the newly proposed genus of Corvid orthoreovirus.

How can we augment the few that remain? Using stable population dynamics to aid reintroduction planning of an iteroparous species.

Restoration of depleted populations is an important method in biological conservation. Reintroduction strategies frequently aim to restore stable, increasing, self-sustaining populations. Knowledge of asymptotic system dynamics may provide advantage in selecting reintroduction strategies. We introduce interactive software that is designed to identify strategies for release of females that are immediately aligned with stable population dynamics from species represented by 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-stage life history strategies. The software allows managers to input a matrix of interest, the desired number of breeding females, and the desired management timeline, and calls upon stable population theory to give release strategies that are in concert with both stable population status and the management goals. We demonstrate how the software can aid in assessing various strategies ahead of a hypothetical restoration. For the purpose of demonstration of the tool only, we use published vital rates of an ungulate species, but remark that the selection of species for demonstration is not central to the use of this tool. Adaption of this tool to real-life restorations of any 2-, 3-, 4-, or 5-stage iteroparous species may aid in understanding how to minimize undesirable recovery complications that may naturally arise from transient population dynamics. The software is freely available at: https//cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/tools/stapopd.

Infection of eight mesocarnivores in New Hampshire and Vermont with a distinct clade of canine distemper virus in 2016-2017.

Three fishers (Martes pennanti), 2 gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), 1 mink (Neovison vison), 1 skunk (Mephitis mephitis), and 1 raccoon (Procyon lotor), from Vermont and New Hampshire, had lesions on autopsy consistent with canine distemper virus (CDV) infections diagnosed in a 12-mo period in 2016-2017. Lesions of CDV infection were most commonly noted in the lungs (8 of 8 animals), urothelium (5 of 8), biliary tract (5 of 8), gastrointestinal tract (4 of 7), and brain (4 of 6). Splenic lesions were seen in 3 animals. The diagnosis was confirmed via immunohistochemistry and virus isolation. Viral genotyping indicated that all 8 animals were infected with a distinct clade of CDV that has only been reported in wildlife in New England, and this clade of viruses is distinct from vaccine strains. During the 12 mo when these cases occurred, no other CDV clade was identified in any other wildlife or domesticated animal submitted from the 2 states.

LEPTOSPIROSIS IN URBAN AND SUBURBAN AMERICAN BLACK BEARS ( URSUS AMERICANUS) IN WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA, USA.

American black bear ( Ursus americanus) populations in North Carolina, US have recovered significantly in recent decades and now occupy much of western North Carolina, including urban-suburban areas. We used the black bear as a potential sentinel for leptospirosis, a bacterial zoonotic disease caused by Leptospira spp., which is maintained by domestic and wild mammals. We determined whether Leptospira spp. were present across a gradient of housing densities in the urban and suburban black bear population in and around Asheville, North Carolina using serologic and molecular surveys. We collected blood from captured black bears ( n=94) and kidneys and bladders from carcasses ( n=19). We tested a total of 96 (47 females, 47 males, and 2 unknown) serum samples by microscopic agglutination test (MAT) and had positive results (titer >1:100) for L. kirschneri serovar Grippotyphosa (L. Grippotyphosa) in 4 females (8%) and 5 males (10%). No other serovars showed elevated titers in MAT. We tested a total of 125 samples using PCR ( n=96 serum, n=20 kidney, and n=9 bladders) and obtained positive results from one serum (1%), one kidney (5%), and one bladder (11%). The presence of Leptospira spp. in black bears occupying an urban and suburban landscape may indicate a more extensive occurrence of the bacteria among animals in the study region because black bears are the top carnivore in that ecosystem. Potential threats of widespread contamination during natural events such as flood or drought must be considered.

MORTALITY TRENDS IN NORTHERN SEA OTTERS ( ENHYDRA LUTRIS KENYONI) COLLECTED FROM THE COASTS OF WASHINGTON AND OREGON, USA (2002-15).

During 2002-15 we examined the causes of mortality in a population of northern sea otters ( Enhydra lutris kenyoni). Beachcast sea otters were collected primarily from the US coast of Washington. Although there are no permanent sea otter residents in Oregon, several beachcast otters were collected from the Oregon coast. Infectious diseases were the primary cause of death (56%) for otters we examined. Sarcocystosis was the leading infectious cause of death (54%) and was observed throughout the study period. Some infectious diseases, such as morbilliviral encephalitis and leptospirosis, were documented for a limited number of years and then not detected again despite continued testing for these pathogens in necropsied animals. Trauma was the second most common cause of death (14%) during the study period. The continued stable growth of the Washington population of otters suggests they are able to tolerate current mortality rates.

Genetic Characterization of Sarcoptes scabiei from Black Bears (Ursus americanus) and Other Hosts in the Eastern United States.

Since the early 1990s there has been an increase in the number of cases and geographic expansion of severe mange in the black bear (Ursus americanus) population in Pennsylvania. Although there are 3 species of mites associated with mange in bears, Sarcoptes scabiei has been identified as the etiologic agent in these Pennsylvania cases. Historically, S. scabiei-associated mange in bears has been uncommon and sporadic, although it is widespread and relatively common in canid populations. To better understand this recent emergence of sarcoptic mange in bears in Pennsylvania and nearby states, we genetically characterized S. scabiei samples from black bears in the eastern United States. These sequences were compared with newly acquired S. scabiei sequences from wild canids (red fox [Vulpes vulpes] and coyote [Canis latrans]) and a porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) from Pennsylvania and Kentucky and also existing sequences in GenBank. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-2 region and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) gene were amplified and sequenced. Twenty-four ITS-2 sequences were obtained from mites from bears (n = 16), red fox (n = 5), coyote (n = 2), and a porcupine. The sequences from bear samples were identical to each other or differed only at polymorphic bases, whereas S. scabiei from canids were more variable, but 2 were identical to S. scabiei sequences from bears. Eighteen cox1 sequences obtained from mites from bears represented 6 novel haplotypes. Phylogenetic analysis of cox1 sequences revealed 4 clades: 2 clades of mites of human origin from Panama or Australia, a clade of mites from rabbits from China, and a large unresolved clade that included the remaining S. scabiei sequences from various hosts and regions, including sequences from the bears from the current study. Although the cox1 gene was more variable than the ITS-2, phylogenetic analyses failed to detect any clustering of S. scabiei from eastern U.S. hosts. Rather, sequences from black bears grouped into a large clade that included S. scabiei from numerous hosts from Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. Collectively, these data suggest that the increasing number of S. scabiei cases in northeastern black bears is not due to the emergence and expansion of a single parasite strain.

RISK FACTORS FOR AND SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF LYMPHOPROLIFERATIVE DISEASE VIRUS (LPDV) IN WILD TURKEYS (MELEAGRIS GALLOPAVO) IN NEW YORK STATE, USA.

Lymphoproliferative disease virus (LPDV) is an oncogenic avian retrovirus that was previously thought to exclusively infect domestic turkeys but was recently shown to be widespread in Wild Turkeys ( Meleagris gallopavo ) throughout most of the eastern US. In commercial flocks, the virus spreads between birds housed in close quarters, but there is little information about potential risk factors for infection in wild birds. Initial studies focused on distribution of LPDV nationally, but investigation of state-level data is necessary to assess potential predictors of infection and detect patterns in disease prevalence and distribution. We tested wild turkey bone marrow samples (n=2,538) obtained from hunter-harvested birds in New York State from 2012 to 2014 for LPDV infection. Statewide prevalence for those 3 yr was 55% with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 53-57%. We evaluated a suite of demographic, anthropogenic, and land cover characteristics with logistic regression to identify potential predictors for infection based on odds ratio (OR). Age (OR=0.16, 95% CI=0.13-0.19) and sex (OR=1.3, 95% CI=1.03-1.24) were strong predictors of LPDV infection, with juveniles less likely to test positive than adults, and females more likely to test positive than males. The number of birds released during the state's 40-yr translocation program (OR=0.993, 95% CI=0.990-0.997) and the ratio of agriculture to forest cover (OR=1.13, 95% CI=1.03-1.19) were also predictive of LPDV infection. Prevalence distribution was analyzed using dual kernel density smoothing to produce a risk surface map, combined with Kulldorff's spatial scan statistic and the Anselin Local Moran's I to identify statistically significant geographic clusters of high or low prevalence. These methods revealed the prevalence of LPDV was high (>50%) throughout New York State, with regions of variation and several significant clusters. We revealed new information about the risk factors and distribution of LPDV in New York State, which may be beneficial to game bird managers and producers of organic or pasture-raised poultry.