Children's cognitive-behavioral functioning at age 6 and 7: prenatal drug exposure and caregiving environment.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine how prenatal drug exposure (PDE) and caregiving environment relate to cognitive, academic, and behavioral performance at ages 6 and 7. METHODS: A longitudinal follow-up was conducted of 111 children with PDE and a community cohort of 62 non-drug-exposed children (N = 173). Children completed standardized tests of cognition (Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fourth Edition [SB-IV]) and academic performance (Wide Range Achievement Test 3). Caregivers completed ratings of child behavior problems (Child Behavior Checklist [CBCL]). Multivariate analyses were conducted, adjusting for gender, prenatal tobacco exposure, number of caregiver placement changes, and 3 caregiver variables assessed at age 7, including depressive symptoms, employment status, and public assistance status. RESULTS: After adjusting for perinatal and environmental variables, there were no significant exposure-group differences in cognition, academic performance, or behavior problems. In comparison with males, females had higher scores on overall IQ and 4 of 8 SB-IV subtests, fewer caregiver-reported attention and aggression problems, and higher reading achievement scores. There were no significant gender-by-group interactions. CONCLUSION: When analyses were adjusted for perinatal and environmental variables, most associations between PDE and cognitive-behavioral functioning were attenuated. Regardless of drug exposure history, males performed more poorly than females on multiple cognitive-behavioral indices. Both exposed and nonexposed children were from low-income families and obtained scores substantially below normative expectations.

Developmental outcome of drug-exposed children through 30 months: a comparison of Bayley and Bayley-II.

This study examined the effects of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID) version on developmental outcomes among drug-exposed children, some of whom received an intervention. Developmental outcome was evaluated with the BSID at 12 and 18 months and with the BSID-II at 24 and 30 months. In the repeated measures analyses, children scored higher on the BSID Mental Developmental Index (MDI; p < .01) and Psychomotor Developmental Index (PDI; p < .01) than on the BSID-II MDI and PDI. Version x Time (p < .01) and Version x Group (p < .01) interactions were also found for the MDI but not the PDI. PDI scores decreased on both the BSID and the BSID-II (p < .01). Over the first 2 years postpartum, mean MDI and PDI scores decreased among these high-risk, drug-exposed children.

Cumulative environmental risk in substance abusing women: early intervention, parenting stress, child abuse potential and child development.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between cumulative environmental risks and early intervention, parenting attitudes, potential for child abuse and child development in substance abusing mothers. METHOD: We studied 161 substance-abusing women, from a randomized longitudinal study of a home based early intervention, who had custody of their children through 18 months. The intervention group received weekly home visits in the first 6 months and biweekly visits from 6 to 18 months. Parenting stress and child abuse potential were assessed at 6 and 18 months postpartum. Children's mental and motor development (Bayley MDI and PDI) and language development (REEL) were assessed at 6, 12, and 18 months postpartum. Ten maternal risk factors were assessed: maternal depression, domestic violence, nondomestic violence, family size, incarceration, no significant other in home, negative life events, psychiatric problems, homelessness, and severity of drug use. Level of risk was recoded into four categories (2 or less, 3, 4, and 5 or more), which had adequate cell sizes for repeated measures analysis. DATA ANALYSIS: Repeated measures analyses were run to examine how level of risk and group (intervention or control) were related to parenting stress, child abuse potential, and children's mental, motor and language development over time. RESULTS: Parenting stress and child abuse potential were higher for women with five risks or more compared with women who had four or fewer risks; children's mental, motor, and language development were not related to level of risk. Children in the intervention group had significantly higher scores on the PDI at 6 and 18 months (107.4 vs. 103.6 and 101.1 vs. 97.2) and had marginally better scores on the MDI at 6 and 12 months (107.7 vs. 104.2 and 103.6 vs. 100.1), compared to the control group. CONCLUSION: Compared to drug-abusing women with fewer than five risks, women with five or more risks found parenting more stressful and indicated greater inclination towards abusive and neglectful behavior, placing their infants at increased risk for poor parenting, abuse and neglect. Early home-based intervention in high-risk families may be beneficial to infant development.

Drug-exposed infants and developmental outcome: effects of a home intervention and ongoing maternal drug use.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of a home intervention and ongoing maternal drug use on the developmental outcome of drug-exposed infants. DESIGN: Longitudinal randomized cohort study of a home intervention with substance-abusing mothers and their infants. Mother-infant dyads were randomly assigned to a control or intervention group at 2 weeks' post partum. Control families received brief monthly tracking visits. Intervention families received weekly home visits from 0 to 6 months and biweekly visits from 6 to 18 months by trained lay visitors. PARTICIPANTS: One hundred eight low-income, inner-city, drug-exposed children (control, 54; intervention, 54) who underwent developmental testing at 6, 12, and 18 months post partum and who remained with their biological mothers through 18 months. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Infant scores from the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID) at 6, 12, and 18 months post partum. Maternal report of drug use during the pregnancy and ongoing drug use through 18 months post partum was assessed. RESULTS: In the repeated-measures analyses, intervention infants had significantly higher BSID Mental Developmental Index (MDI) and Psychomotor Developmental Index scores than control infants. Ongoing maternal cocaine and/or heroin use was associated with lower MDI scores. Finally, MDI scores decreased significantly in both groups. CONCLUSIONS: Ongoing maternal drug use is associated with worse developmental outcomes among a group of drug-exposed infants. A home intervention led to higher BSID scores among drug-exposed infants. However, BSID MDI scores decreased during the first 18 months post partum among inner-city, low-socioeconomic-status infants in the present study.

Ongoing maternal drug use, parenting attitudes, and a home intervention: effects on mother-child interaction at 18 months.

This prospective study examined the effects of ongoing maternal drug use, parenting attitudes, and a home-based intervention on mother-child interaction among drug-using women and their children. At 2 weeks postpartum, mothers and infants were randomly assigned to either an Intervention (n = 67) or Control (n = 64) Group. Intervention families received weekly visits until 6 months postpartum and biweekly visits from 6 to 18 months by trained lay visitors. The home intervention was designed to increase maternal empowerment and promote child development. Control families received brief monthly tracking visits. Mother-child interaction was evaluated at 18 months through observation of play. Mothers who continued to use cocaine and/or heroin had lower competence scores (p <.05); poor parenting attitude was also associated with lower competence scores during mother-child interaction (p <.05). Although the intervention had no measured effect, ongoing maternal drug use and poor parenting attitudes were associated with less optimal maternal behavior during mother-child interaction.