Cognitive training and remediation interventions for substance use disorders: a Delphi consensus study.

AIMS: Substance use disorders (SUD) are associated with cognitive deficits that are not always addressed in current treatments, and this hampers recovery. Cognitive training and remediation interventions are well suited to fill the gap for managing cognitive deficits in SUD. We aimed to reach consensus on recommendations for developing and applying these interventions. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: We used a Delphi approach with two sequential phases: survey development and iterative surveying of experts. This was an on-line study. During survey development, we engaged a group of 15 experts from a working group of the International Society of Addiction Medicine (Steering Committee). During the surveying process, we engaged a larger pool of experts (n = 54) identified via recommendations from the Steering Committee and a systematic review. MEASUREMENTS: Survey with 67 items covering four key areas of intervention development: targets, intervention approaches, active ingredients and modes of delivery. FINDINGS: Across two iterative rounds (98% retention rate), the experts reached a consensus on 50 items including: (i) implicit biases, positive affect, arousal, executive functions and social processing as key targets of interventions; (ii) cognitive bias modification, contingency management, emotion regulation training and cognitive remediation as preferred approaches; (iii) practice, feedback, difficulty-titration, bias modification, goal-setting, strategy learning and meta-awareness as active ingredients; and (iv) both addiction treatment work-force and specialized neuropsychologists facilitating delivery, together with novel digital-based delivery modalities. CONCLUSIONS: Expert recommendations on cognitive training and remediation for substance use disorders highlight the relevance of targeting implicit biases, reward, emotion regulation and higher-order cognitive skills via well-validated intervention approaches qualified with mechanistic techniques and flexible delivery options.

The effectiveness of a mobile intervention to reduce young adults' alcohol consumption to not exceed low-risk drinking guidelines.

Background: Young adults' drinking habits often exceed low-risk drinking guidelines. As young adults show increased access, use, and interest in personalized content related to physical and mental well-being, mobile applications might be a suitable tool to reach this target group. This study investigates the effectiveness of "Boozebuster", a self-guided mobile application incorporating various therapeutic principles to reduce young adults' alcohol consumption to not exceeding low-risk drinking guideline levels, compared to an educational website condition. Method: Young adults aged 18-30 wanting to reduce their alcohol consumption entered a two-arm, parallel-group RCT. There were no minimum drinking severity inclusion criteria. Primary outcomes included alcohol consumption quantity and frequency. Secondary outcomes included binge drinking frequency and alcohol-related problem severity. Baseline, 6-week postbaseline, and 3-month post-baseline assessments were analyzed using linear mixed model analyses. Sex, treatment adherence, experienced engagement and motivation to change alcohol use behavior were investigated as moderators. Sub-group analyses contained problem drinkers and binge drinkers. Results: 503 participants were randomized to the intervention or control condition. Results showed no intervention effects on primary or secondary outcomes compared to the control group. Both groups showed within-group reductions on all outcomes. Sub-group analyses in problem drinkers or binge drinkers showed similar results. Motivation to change drinking behavior and experienced engagement with the application significantly moderated the intervention effect regarding the quantity or frequency of alcohol consumption, respectively. Exploratory analyses showed that participants who indicated they wanted to change their drinking patterns during the initial PNF/MI module showed a significantly greater reduction in drinking quantity compared to those who indicated not wanting to change their drinking patterns. Conclusion: The intervention group did not show a greater reduction in alcohol-related outcomes compared to the control group, but both groups showed a similar decrease. Potential explanations include similar effectiveness of both condition due to using a minimal active control in participants predominantly in the action stage of motivation to change. Future research should further explore the effectiveness of using mobile application to reduce young adults' drinking behavior to not exceed low-risk drinking guideline levels and identify factors that motivate participants to engage with such an intervention.

Feasibility of Digital Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Depressed Older Adults With the Moodbuster Platform: Protocol for 2 Pilot Feasibility Studies.

BACKGROUND: Internet-based interventions can be effective in the treatment of depression. However, internet-based interventions for older adults with depression are scarce, and little is known about their feasibility and effectiveness. OBJECTIVE: To present the design of 2 studies aiming to assess the feasibility of internet-based cognitive behavioral treatment for older adults with depression. We will assess the feasibility of an online, guided version of the Moodbuster platform among depressed older adults from the general population as well as the feasibility of a blended format (combining integrated face-to-face sessions and internet-based modules) in a specialized mental health care outpatient clinic. METHODS: A single-group, pretest-posttest design will be applied in both settings. The primary outcome of the studies will be feasibility in terms of (1) acceptance and satisfaction (measured with the Client Satisfaction Questionnaire-8), (2) usability (measured with the System Usability Scale), and (3) engagement (measured with the Twente Engagement with eHealth Technologies Scale). Secondary outcomes include (1) the severity of depressive symptoms (measured with the 8-item Patient Health Questionnaire depression scale), (2) participant and therapist experience with the digital technology (measured with qualitative interviews), (3) the working alliance between patients and practitioners (from both perspectives; measured with the Working Alliance Inventory-Short Revised questionnaire), (4) the technical alliance between patients and the platform (measured with the Working Alliance Inventory for Online Interventions-Short Form questionnaire), and (5) uptake, in terms of attempted and completed modules. A total of 30 older adults with mild to moderate depressive symptoms (Geriatric Depression Scale 15 score between 5 and 11) will be recruited from the general population. A total of 15 older adults with moderate to severe depressive symptoms (Geriatric Depression Scale 15 score between 8 and 15) will be recruited from a specialized mental health care outpatient clinic. A mixed methods approach combining quantitative and qualitative analyses will be adopted. Both the primary and secondary outcomes will be further explored with individual semistructured interviews and synthesized descriptively. Descriptive statistics (reported as means and SDs) will be used to examine the primary and secondary outcome measures. Within-group depression severity will be analyzed using a 2-tailed, paired-sample t test to investigate differences between time points. The interviews will be recorded and analyzed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: The studies were funded in October 2019. Recruitment started in September 2022. CONCLUSIONS: The results of these pilot studies will show whether this platform is feasible for use by the older adult population in a blended, guided format in the 2 settings and will represent the first exploration of the size of the effect of Moodbuster in terms of decreased depressive symptoms. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): PRR1-10.2196/41445.

A Web-Based Stress Management Intervention for University Students in Indonesia (Rileks): Feasibility Study Using a Pretest-Posttest Design.

BACKGROUND: University students are susceptible to excessive stress. A web-based stress management intervention holds promise to improve stress but is still at a novel stage in Indonesia. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this paper was to report the feasibility of the intervention we developed-Rileks-among university students in Indonesia in terms of acceptability and usability, and to propose recommendations for future improvements. METHODS: A single-group pretest and posttest design was used. Participants with scores of 15 or higher on the stress subscale of the 42-item Depression Anxiety Stress Scales were given access to the intervention (N=68). The main outcome measures were the 8-item Client Satisfaction Questionnaire (CSQ-8) score, the System Usability Scale (SUS) score, and intervention uptake. Participants' experience in each session was evaluated using closed- and open-ended questions for future improvements. Descriptive statistics were used to examine primary outcome and qualitative session evaluations. Participants' responses to each topic of the open questions were summarized. RESULTS: The intervention was evaluated as being satisfactory (CSQ-8 mean score 21.89, SD 8.72; range 8-32). However, the intervention's usability was still below expectation (SUS mean score 62.8, SD 14.74; range 0-100). The core modules were completed by 10 out of 68 participants (15%), and the study dropout rate was 63% (43/68) at postassessment. In general, the module content was rated positively, with some notes for improvement covering content and technical aspects. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that Rileks is potentially feasible for Indonesian university students. In order to be optimally applied in such a context and before scaling up web-based interventions in Indonesia, in general, further development and refinement are needed. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): RR2-10.2196/11493.

Effectiveness of eHealth Interventions in Improving Medication Adherence for Patients With Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease or Asthma: Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Poor treatment adherence in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or asthma is a global public health concern with severe consequences in terms of patient health and societal costs. A potentially promising tool for addressing poor compliance is eHealth. OBJECTIVE: This review investigates the effects of eHealth interventions on medication adherence in patients with COPD or asthma. METHODS: A systematic literature search was conducted in the databases of Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, PubMed, and Embase for studies with publication dates between January 1, 2000, and October 29, 2020. We selected randomized controlled trials targeting adult patients with COPD or asthma, which evaluated the effectiveness of an eHealth intervention on medication adherence. The risk of bias in the included studies was examined using the Cochrane Collaboration's risk of bias tool. The results were narratively reviewed. RESULTS: In total, six studies focusing on COPD and seven focusing on asthma were analyzed. Interventions were mostly internet-based or telephone-based, and could entail telemonitoring of symptoms and medication adherence, education, counseling, consultations, and self-support modules. Control groups mostly comprised usual care conditions, whereas a small number of studies used a face-to-face intervention or waiting list as the control condition. For COPD, the majority of eHealth interventions were investigated as an add-on to usual care (5/6 studies), whereas for asthma the majority of interventions were investigated as a standalone intervention (5/7 studies). Regarding eHealth interventions targeting medication adherence for COPD, two studies reported nonsignificant effects, one study found a significant effect in comparison to usual care, and three reported mixed results. Of the seven studies that investigated eHealth interventions targeting medication adherence in asthma, three studies found significant effects, two reported nonsignificant effects, and two reported mixed effects. CONCLUSIONS: The mixed results on the effectiveness of eHealth interventions in improving treatment adherence for asthma and COPD are presumably related to the type, context, and intensity of the interventions, as well as to differences in the operationalization and measurement of adherence outcomes. Much remains to be learned about the potential of eHealth to optimize treatment adherence in COPD and asthma.

The effect of N-acetylcysteine and working memory training on glutamate concentrations in the dACC and rACC in regular cocaine users - A randomized proof of concept study.

INTRODUCTION: Current treatments for cocaine use disorder (CUD) are not very effective and better treatments are needed. This study investigates the effectiveness of a combined intervention that targets the assumed underlying glutamate pathology in cocaine users. To this end, the combined effects of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and working memory (WM) training on glutamate concentrations in the dorsal and rostral ACC were investigated in a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled design. METHODS: In this study, 38 regular cocaine-using men were randomized to either 25-days with 2400 mg/day NAC and WM-training or 25 days with placebo with WM-training. Cocaine use, impulsivity, and glutamate concentrations in the dACC and rACC using proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy were assessed at baseline and after treatment. RESULTS: Twenty-four participants completed the study, of which 9 received NAC and 15 received placebo. There were no baseline correlations of glutamate concentrations in the dACC or rACC with cocaine use measures or impulsivity. Additionally, there were no effects of NAC, WM-training, or the combination thereof on (changes in) glutamate concentrations in the dACC or rACC. DISCUSSION: This randomized proof of concept study could not confirm our hypotheses. Possible explanations are insufficient power and the possible absence of deviant baseline glutamate concentrations in the included participants. Future studies should consider larger samples and a non-using control group to confirm baseline deviations in glutamate in cocaine users.

A Mobile Intervention to Promote Low-Risk Drinking Habits in Young Adults: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Young adults' drinking habits commonly exceed recommendations for low-risk drinking, which may have a negative effect on their mental, social, and physical health. As smartphones are highly accessible to young adults, mobile apps could be used to support young adults to develop low-risk drinking habits and improve their general health. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of Boozebuster, a self-guided mobile app based on healthy lifestyle-related components that aim to develop and maintain low-risk drinking habits among young adults. METHODS: This two-arm, parallel-group randomized controlled trial will investigate whether a 6-week self-guided mobile intervention (Boozebuster) targeting drinking behavior is more effective than a minimal intervention consisting of an educational website on alcohol use and its consequences for young adults. We will recruit 506 young adults (aged 18-30 years) from the Netherlands via an open recruitment strategy by using an open access website. All outcomes will be self-assessed through questionnaires. The primary outcome is the quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption in standard drinks (10 g ethanol per standard drink) per month (timeline follow-back [TLFB]). Secondary outcomes include binge-drinking sessions per month, alcohol-related problem severity (Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index), cannabis use frequency and quantity in grams (TLFB), depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale), perceived stress (Perceived Stress Scale), engagement (Twente Engagement with eHealth Technologies Scale), readiness to change (Readiness to Change Questionnaire), mental well-being (Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale), trauma and COVID-19-related trauma (Short-Form Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition), impulsivity (Urgency, Premeditation, Perseverance, Sensation Seeking, Positive Urgency Impulsive Behavior Scale), study or work performance (Individual Work Performance Questionnaire), and treatment adherence. Baseline (T0), 6-week postbaseline (T1), and 3-month postbaseline (T2) assessments will be conducted and analyzed on the basis of the intention-to-treat principle using multilevel mixed modeling analyses. RESULTS: Recruitment began in September 2020. We received 933 registrations via our study information website; 506 participants have completed the T0 assessment, 336 participants have completed the T1 assessment, and 308 participants have completed the T2 assessment as of May 2021. The study is still in progress, and results will be reported in 2021 and 2022. CONCLUSIONS: Self-guided mobile interventions based on a lifestyle approach might be an attractive approach for young adults due to their preference on self-reliance, healthy living, and increased perceived anonymity. Such interventions are yet understudied, and it is known that interventions addressing solely problem drinking are less appealing to young adults. We hypothesize that the Boozebuster mobile app will effectively reduce drinking levels compared to an alcohol educational website (control condition). If effective, our intervention could be an inexpensive and scalable public health intervention to improve drinking habits in young adults. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Netherlands Trial Register NL8828; https://www.trialregister.nl/trial/8828. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/29750.

Transdiagnostic Internet Intervention for Indonesian University Students With Depression and Anxiety: Evaluation of Feasibility and Acceptability.

BACKGROUND: University students with depression and anxiety do not easily receive or seek treatment; therefore, internet-based interventions have been suggested to be a promising way to improve treatment accessibility and availability. However, it has not been examined whether a guided, culturally adapted, transdiagnostic, internet-based intervention is effective for treating symptoms of depression, anxiety, or both among university students in Indonesia. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to investigate the feasibility (acceptability and satisfaction, usability, and uptake) of a guided, culturally adapted, transdiagnostic, internet-based intervention among university students with symptoms of depression, anxiety, or both in Indonesia. METHODS: Students from Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, were screened for symptoms of depression, anxiety, or both, and filled online informed consent, demographic questionnaires, and a quality of life measure at pretreatment assessment (T0). Subsequently, the participants started the intervention. Seven weeks after T0, the primary outcomes of this feasibility study were analyzed at posttreatment assessment (T1) using the 8-item Client Satisfaction Questionnaire (CSQ-8) and the System Usability Scale (SUS). Mean and SDs for the CSQ-8 and SUS were calculated to examine feasibility. Within-group secondary outcomes (depression, anxiety, and quality of life) were inspected for outliers and normal distribution. Paired-sample t tests were used to investigate differences between time points of secondary outcomes. A mixed-method approach of quantitative and qualitative analyses was adopted. Both the primary and secondary outcomes were additionally explored with an individual semistructured interview and synthesized descriptively. RESULTS: A total of 50 participants completed the intervention. We found a moderate to high level of satisfaction and acceptability, a slightly below-average level of desirable usability (≥70), and an adherence rate of 52% which was higher than expected given the novelty of the intervention. Results for the secondary outcomes indicated a decrease in depression and anxiety. For depression, the overall mean difference between the 2 time points for depression was 3.92 (95% CI 2.75-5.1; Hedges g 1.15; P<.001). For anxiety, the overall mean difference between the 2 time points was 3.34 (95% CI 2.06-4.61; Hedges g 1.02; P<.001). Further, a moderate effect in improving quality of life was found (g=0.50). Overall, participants were positive about the online intervention and ECoaches (online guidance), and they found the intervention to be culturally appropriate. CONCLUSIONS: A culturally adapted, transdiagnostic, internet-based intervention appears to be acceptable and feasible for reducing symptoms of depression, anxiety, or both, and increasing quality of life in university students in Indonesia. Future studies should include a randomized controlled trial to assess the effectiveness of such interventions as they may supplement existing counseling services in universities, reduce the treatment costs, and maximize treatment accessibility in low-resourced settings. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): RR2-10.1016/j.invent.2018.11.002.

Mind Your Data: Privacy and Legal Matters in eHealth.

The health care sector can benefit considerably from developments in digital technology. Consequently, eHealth applications are rapidly increasing in number and sophistication. For successful development and implementation of eHealth, it is paramount to guarantee the privacy and safety of patients and their collected data. At the same time, anonymized data that are collected through eHealth could be used in the development of innovative and personalized diagnostic, prognostic, and treatment tools. To address the needs of researchers, health care providers, and eHealth developers for more information and practical tools to handle privacy and legal matters in eHealth, the Dutch national Digital Society Research Programme organized the "Mind Your Data: Privacy and Legal Matters in eHealth" conference. In this paper, we share the key take home messages from the conference based on the following five tradeoffs: (1) privacy versus independence, (2) informed consent versus convenience, (3) clinical research versus clinical routine data, (4) responsibility and standardization, and (5) privacy versus solidarity.

The effect of N-acetylcysteine and working memory training on neural mechanisms of working memory and cue reactivity in regular cocaine users.

The current study investigated the combined effects of N-acetylcysteine and working memory (WM) training on behavioral and neural mechanisms of cue reactivity and WM in cocaine users in a randomized, double-blind design. Twenty-four of 38 cocaine-using men completed a 25-day treatment with either 2400 mg/day NAC or placebo. Both groups performed WM-training. During pre- and post-test lab-visits, neural mechanisms of cue reactivity and WM, and cue-induced craving and WM performance were assessed. Additionally, exploratory whole brain analyses were performed. Overall, the hypotheses were not confirmed, possibly due to small sample size, low WM-training adherence and/or ongoing substance use.

Reprint of The effect of N-acetylcysteine and working memory training on cocaine use, craving and inhibition in regular cocaine users: correspondence of lab assessments and Ecological Momentary Assessment.

INTRODUCTION: Effective treatment for cocaine use disorder should dampen hypersensitive cue-induced motivational processes and/or strengthen executive control. Using a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled intervention, the primary aim of this study was to investigate the effect of N-Acetylcysteine (NAC) and working memory (WM)-training to reduce cocaine use and craving and to improve inhibition assessed in the laboratory and during Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA). The second aim was to examine correspondence between laboratory and EMA data. METHODS: Twenty-four of 38 cocaine-using men completed a 25-day intervention with 2400mg/day NAC or placebo and WM-training as well as two lab-visits assessing cocaine use, craving and inhibition (Stop Signal task). Additionally, cocaine use, craving and cognition (Stroop task) were assessed using EMA during treatment, with 26 participants completing 819 assessments. RESULTS: Cocaine problems according to the Drug Use Disorder Identification Test (DUDIT) decreased more after NAC than after placebo, and the proportion of cocaine-positive urines at lab-visit 2 was lower in the NAC group. No NAC effects were found on craving. For cocaine use and craving, results from the lab data were generally similar to EMA results. NAC also showed some effects on cognitive control: improved inhibition assessed with the Stop Signal task in the lab, and decreased classic Stroop performance during EMA. There were no significant effects of number of completed WM-training sessions. CONCLUSIONS: Overall this study revealed mixed findings regarding the treatment of cocaine use disorders with NAC and WM-training. The effect of NAC on inhibition should be further investigated.

Causal Factors of Increased Smoking in ADHD: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: ADHD is a highly prevalent disorder and poses a risk for a variety of mental disorders and functional impairments into adulthood. One of the most striking comorbidities of ADHD is nicotine dependence. Youth diagnosed with ADHD are 2-3 times more likely to smoke than their peers without ADHD, initiate smoking earlier in life and progress more quickly and more frequently to regular use and dependence. Possible explanations for these increased risks are: (a) self-medication of ADHD symptoms with the stimulant nicotine; (b) ADHD symptoms like inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity predispose for smoking initiation and impede smoking cessation; (c) peer pressure; and/or (d) common genetic or environmental determinants for ADHD and smoking. OBJECTIVE: Identify the most probable causes of the high prevalence of smoking and nicotine dependence in subjects with ADHD. METHODS: A systematic literature review was performed and the causality of the observed relations was ranked using the Bradford Hill criteria. FINDINGS: ADHD medication reduces early smoking initiation and alleviates smoking withdrawal. Nicotine patches, bupropion and (probably) varenicline ameliorate ADHD symptoms. Imitation of and interaction with peers and genetic and environmental determinants may contribute to the comorbidity, but seem to contribute less than self-medication. CONCLUSION: Smoking is probably best explained by a combination of imitation, peer pressure and typical traits of ADHD. In contrast, the positive relation between ADHD and nicotine dependence is currently best explained by the self-medication hypothesis. This hypothesis has a clear pharmacological rationale and is supported by ample evidence, but awaits confirmation from longitudinal naturalistic studies.

The effect of N-acetylcysteine and working memory training on cocaine use, craving and inhibition in regular cocaine users: correspondence of lab assessments and Ecological Momentary Assessment.

INTRODUCTION: Effective treatment for cocaine use disorder should dampen hypersensitive cue-induced motivational processes and/or strengthen executive control. Using a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled intervention, the primary aim of this study was to investigate the effect of N-Acetylcysteine (NAC) and working memory (WM)-training to reduce cocaine use and craving and to improve inhibition assessed in the laboratory and during Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA). The second aim was to examine correspondence between laboratory and EMA data. METHODS: Twenty-four of 38 cocaine-using men completed a 25-day intervention with 2400mg/day NAC or placebo and WM-training as well as two lab-visits assessing cocaine use, craving and inhibition (Stop Signal task). Additionally, cocaine use, craving and cognition (Stroop task) were assessed using EMA during treatment, with 26 participants completing 819 assessments. RESULTS: Cocaine problems according to the Drug Use Disorder Identification Test (DUDIT) decreased more after NAC than after placebo, and the proportion of cocaine-positive urines at lab-visit 2 was lower in the NAC group. No NAC effects were found on craving. For cocaine use and craving, results from the lab data were generally similar to EMA results. NAC also showed some effects on cognitive control: improved inhibition assessed with the Stop Signal task in the lab, and decreased classic Stroop performance during EMA. There were no significant effects of number of completed WM-training sessions. CONCLUSIONS: Overall this study revealed mixed findings regarding the treatment of cocaine use disorders with NAC and WM-training. The effect of NAC on inhibition should be further investigated.

Prefrontal Glx and GABA concentrations and impulsivity in cigarette smokers and smoking polysubstance users.

Glutamate and GABA play an important role in substance dependence. However, it remains unclear whether this holds true for different substance use disorders and how this is related to risk-related traits such as impulsivity. We, therefore, compared Glx (as a proxy measure for glutamate) and GABA concentrations in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) of 48 male cigarette smokers, 61 male smoking polysubstance users, and 90 male healthy controls, and investigated the relationship with self-reported impulsivity and substance use. Glx and GABA concentrations were measured using proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. Impulsivity, smoking, alcohol and cocaine use severity and cannabis use were measured using self-report instruments. Results indicate a trend towards group differences in Glx. Post-hoc analyses showed a difference between smokers and healthy controls (p=0.04) and a trend towards higher concentrations in smoking polysubstance users and healthy controls (p=0.09), but no differences between smokers and smoking polysubstance users. dACC GABA concentrations were not significantly different between groups. Smoking polysubstance users were more impulsive than smokers, and both groups were more impulsive than controls. No significant associations were observed between dACC neurotransmitter concentrations and impulsivity and level and severity of smoking, alcohol or cocaine use or the presence of cannabis use. The results indicate that differences in dACC Glx are unrelated to type and level of substance use. No final conclusion can be drawn on the lack of GABA differences due to assessment difficulties. The relationship between dACC neurotransmitter concentrations and cognitive impairments other than self-reported impulsivity should be further investigated.

Recovery of neurocognitive functions following sustained abstinence after substance dependence and implications for treatment.

BACKGROUND: Substance Use Disorders (SUDs) have been associated with impaired neurocognitive functioning, which may (partly) improve with sustained abstinence. New treatments are emerging, aimed at improving cognitive functions, and being tested. However, no integrated review is available regarding neurocognitive recovery following sustained abstinence. OBJECTIVES: In this review, results from prospective studies on neurocognitive recovery using neuropsychological assessments before and after sustained abstinence from SUDs are summarized and discussed. RESULTS: Thirty-five prospective studies were selected for this review, including twenty-two alcohol, three cannabis, four cocaine, three (meth)amphetamine, and three opioid studies. Results suggest that some cognitive functions (partially) recover after sustained abstinence, and that there are predictors of an unfavorable course such as poly-substance use and number of previous detoxifications. CONCLUSIONS: Prospective studies indicate that sustained abstinence after SUDs generally results in (partial) neurocognitive recovery. However, a final answer regarding full recovery awaits prospective studies with neurocognitive assessments before, during, and after sustained abstinence from SUDs. New interventions that might enhance neurocognitive recovery after abstinence are discussed, including neurocognitive training, medication and neuromodulation.

Medial parietal cortex activation related to attention control involving alcohol cues.

Automatic attentional engagement toward and disengagement from alcohol cues play a role in alcohol use and dependence. In the current study, social drinkers performed a spatial cueing task designed to evoke conflict between such automatic processes and task instructions, a potentially important task feature from the perspective of recent dual-process models of addiction. Subjects received instructions either to direct their attention toward pictures of alcoholic beverages, and away from non-alcohol beverages; or to direct their attention toward pictures of non-alcoholic beverages, and away from alcohol beverages. Instructions were varied per block. Activation in medial parietal cortex was found during "approach alcohol" versus "avoid-alcohol" blocks. This region is associated with the, possibly automatic, shifting of attention between stimulus features. Subjects thus appeared to shift attention away from certain features of alcoholic cues when attention had to be directed toward their location. Further, activation in voxels located close to this region was negatively correlated with riskier drinking behavior. A tentative interpretation of the results is that risky drinking may be associated with a reduced automatic tendency to shift attention away from potentially distracting task-irrelevant alcohol cues. Future study is needed to test this interpretation, and to further determine the role of medial posterior regions in automatic alcohol-related attentional processes in general.