Housing placement and subsequent days homeless among formerly homeless adults with mental illness.

OBJECTIVE: The study examined the influence of group or individual housing placement and consumer characteristics on the number of days subsequently homeless among formerly homeless mentally ill persons. METHODS: A total of 303 homeless shelter residents with severe mental illness were screened for dangerousness, 118 were randomly assigned to either independent apartment or staffed group living sites, and 110 were followed for 18 months. Study participants' sociodemographic characteristics, diagnosis, and residential preferences and the residential recommendations made by clinicians were measured at baseline. RESULTS: Overall, 76 percent of the study participants were housed at the end of the 18-month follow-up period, although 27 percent had experienced at least one episode of homelessness during the period. The number of days homeless was greater for individuals assigned to independent apartments than for those placed in staffed group homes, but only for members of minority groups. Substance abuse was the strongest individual-level predictor of days homeless. Individuals whom clinicians identified as needing group living experienced more days homeless, irrespective of the type of housing they received. Consumers who stated a strong preference for independent living had more days homeless than those who were amenable to staffed group homes. CONCLUSIONS: Although consumers more frequently prefer independent living, placement in staffed group housing resulted in somewhat fewer days homeless for some groups of consumers. Further experience of homelessness by formerly homeless mentally ill individuals may be reduced by providing effective substance abuse treatment and by paying special attention to consumers identified by clinicians to be at particular risk for housing loss.

Neuropsychological function in homeless mentally ill individuals.

Because little data are available on the neuropsychological functioning of severely and persistently mentally ill (SPMI) persons who are homeless, our primary goal was to describe accurately and extensively the general neuropsychological functioning of a large group of such homeless individuals. In addition, we have sought to examine the relationship between some neuropsychological functions and demographic, illness, and clinical state measures in this population. A 5-hour neuropsychological test battery was administered to 116 SPMI homeless individuals. Neuropsychological, diagnostic, substance abuse, clinical, and psychopathology data were obtained in a standardized manner. SPMI homeless individuals were significantly impaired on a wide range of neuropsychological functions. Specific test performances were most significantly related to precursor variables (level of education and parental socioeconomic status) and state variables (level of psychosis and anticholinergic medication dose). Gender and substance abuse had significant effects limited to sustained attention. Neuropsychological performance was impaired in this sample of homeless SPMI persons. Further research, using profile analysis to directly compare groups composed of homeless persons without psychiatric illness or demographically matched persons of comparable psychiatric status who are not homeless will help clarify the role of homelessness and psychosis on neuropsychological function.

Self-report and observer measures of substance abuse among homeless mentally ill persons in the cross-section and over time.

The comparability of self-report and observer measures of substance abuse among 118 homeless mentally ill persons was assessed using cross-sectional and longitudinal measures. Possible correlates of nondisclosure were identified from demographic variables and clinical indicators. Lifetime abuse reported at baseline was a sensitive predictor of subsequent abuse behavior in the project, but cross-sectional measures based only on self-report or observer ratings failed to identify many abusers. A total of 17% of the subjects never disclosed abuse that was observed during the project. The level of substance abuse is likely to be severely underestimated among homeless mentally ill persons when only one self-report measure is used at just one point in time. This problem can, however, largely be-overcome by incorporating information from observers and from multiple follow-ups or by focusing on lifetime rather than current abuse. We also conclude that underreporting may bias estimates of some correlates of substance abuse.

Assessing homeless mentally ill persons for permanent housing: screening for safety.

Although placement in community housing is a frequent intervention with populations of seriously mentally ill homeless individuals, there has been little formal investigation of the criteria used by clinicians in screening individuals for such placement. In this paper, we describe screening a population of 303 homeless people with severe mental illness for placement in independent apartments. We assess subjects' level of risk along multiple dimensions and determine the contribution of each risk dimension to the final safety decision. In addition, we evaluate the validity of the risk measures with other measures of clinical condition. Two-thirds of the sample were judged as safe for independent living. Assaultiveness was the most frequent risk identified, followed by self-destructiveness, substance abuse, and medication non-compliance. The final safety decision was associated most strongly with assaultiveness, self-destructiveness, and medication non-compliance. We conclude that it is possible to assess risk with measures that are available from shelter and medical records, and call for more research on the role of medication non-compliance in safety decisions and for longitudinal research to validate risk assessments.

Housing preferences and perceptions of health and functioning among homeless mentally ill persons.

OBJECTIVE: Most homeless persons who have received services for serious mental illness want to live on their own, but mental health professionals usually recommend group housing. This study examined the relationship between the types of residential arrangements preferred by homeless mentally ill persons and their demographic and clinical characteristics and perceptions of their health and functional status. METHODS: The study sample consisted of 118 homeless mentally ill persons living in publicly funded shelters in Boston who were enrolled in a research demonstration project that would provide them with housing. Before random assignment to housing, study participants were interviewed about their interest in moving, in staff support, and in living with others. Their clinical status and functional strengths and impairments were assessed using a variety of objective and subjective measures. RESULTS: Study participants reported a marked preference for independent living but expressed substantial interest in staff support. The desire for independent living was associated with a perceived ability to manage independent living, but was also associated with current substance abuse. Most indicators of clinical status and functional ability were not associated with housing preferences. CONCLUSIONS: Self-perceived functional ability may not be an influence on housing preferences, except when that ability is perceived as making independent living more difficult. Symptoms of mental illness did not appear to interfere with study participants' rational decision making about where to live. However, the study finding that substance abusers expressed a desire for independent living suggests the need for caution in adhering to homeless mentally ill persons' housing preferences, given the problems posed by substance abuse for their ability to maintain stable community housing.

Comparison of clinicians' housing recommendations and preferences of homeless mentally ill persons.

Housing recommendations made by two clinicians for 86 homeless mentally ill consumers were compared with the consumers' own housing preferences. Clinicians recommended independent living much less often than did the consumers. The two groups varied less on specific housing features such as eagerness for consumers to leave the shelter and consumers' need for part-time staff help. Only one of the clinicians took into account some aspects of social background and health status in formulating housing recommendations. The authors conclude that housing providers should encourage clinicians to work together with consumers to identify appropriate placements.

Distress, suicidal thoughts, and social support among homeless adults.

Influences on psychological distress and suicidal thoughts are evaluated with a sample of 218 sheltered homeless adults. Levels of distress and suicidal thoughts are much higher than in the general population, and are comparable to those found by Rossi (1989). Perceived social support lessens distress and suicidal thoughts directly and also buffers homeless persons from the distress associated with traumatic experiences. There is little indication of a mediating (intervening) role of social support. Distress and suicidal thoughts are also associated with increased health problems; homeless history and sociodemographic characteristics are less important as predictors. Distress itself increases suicidal thoughts--directly, and also in interaction with low levels of social support. We conclude that distress among homeless persons is explained by the same types of influences as those that account for distress among the general population--the gravity of homeless persons' economic situation does not preclude sensitivity to the benefits of social support.