Mindfulness-Based Psychotherapy Approaches for First Responders: From Research to Clinical Practice.

First responders are psychosocially burdened with work-related stressors that occur frequently during required duties. Related mental health difficulties, such as direct and vicarious trauma, depression, and interpersonal problems often affect first responders' ability to perform effectively, and their personal lives may be disrupted. Mindfulness-based interventions have been shown to directly promote first responders' mental and physical health while providing increased resilience when facing work-related stressors. This article summarizes mindfulness-based benefits and empirical research related to first responders, using law enforcement officers as one specific example. Two specific mindfulness-based psychotherapies are introduced, as are generalizable mindfulness techniques useful for first responders. Psychotherapists can use these empirically supported treatment approaches to help first responders understand and incorporate awareness-based, nonjudgmental, and present-centered mindfulness techniques during critical incidents and while off duty as resilience-building mechanisms.

Racial disparities in psychotic disorder diagnosis: A review of empirical literature.

Psychotic disorder diagnoses are common in the United States and internationally. However, racial disparities in rates of psychotic disorder diagnoses have been reported across time and mental health professions. This literature review provides an updated and comprehensive summary of empirical research on race and diagnosis of psychotic disorders spanning a 24-year period. Findings reveal a clear and pervasive pattern wherein African American/Black consumers show a rate of on average three to four higher than Euro-American/White consumers. Latino American/Hispanic consumers were also disproportionately diagnosed with psychotic disorders on average approximately three times higher compared to Euro-American/White consumers. In addition, a trend among international studies suggests that immigrant racial minority consumers receiving mental health services may be assigned a psychotic disorder diagnosis more frequently than native consumers sharing a majority racial background. Potential explanations for this phenomenon are discussed, including possible clinical bias and sociological causes such as differential access to healthcare and willingness to participate in mental health services. Directions for future research should include the exploration of disproportionate diagnoses according to race through qualitative interviewing as well as empirical investigation.

Soil moisture sensing via swept frequency based microwave sensors.

There is a need for low-cost, high-accuracy measurement of water content in various materials. This study assesses the performance of a new microwave swept frequency domain instrument (SFI) that has promise to provide a low-cost, high-accuracy alternative to the traditional and more expensive time domain reflectometry (TDR). The technique obtains permittivity measurements of soils in the frequency domain utilizing a through transmission configuration, transmissometry, which provides a frequency domain transmissometry measurement (FDT). The measurement is comparable to time domain transmissometry (TDT) with the added advantage of also being able to separately quantify the real and imaginary portions of the complex permittivity so that the measured bulk permittivity is more accurate that the measurement TDR provides where the apparent permittivity is impacted by the signal loss, which can be significant in heavier soils. The experimental SFI was compared with a high-end 12 GHz TDR/TDT system across a range of soils at varying soil water contents and densities. As propagation delay is the fundamental measurement of interest to the well-established TDR or TDT technique; the first set of tests utilized precision propagation delay lines to test the accuracy of the SFI instrument's ability to resolve propagation delays across the expected range of delays that a soil probe would present when subjected to the expected range of soil types and soil moisture typical to an agronomic cropping system. The results of the precision-delay line testing suggests the instrument is capable of predicting propagation delays with a RMSE of +/-105 ps across the range of delays ranging from 0 to 12,000 ps with a coefficient of determination of r(2) = 0.998. The second phase of tests noted the rich history of TDR for prediction of soil moisture and leveraged this history by utilizing TDT measured with a high-end Hewlett Packard TDR/TDT instrument to directly benchmark the SFI instrument over a range of soil types, at varying levels of moisture. This testing protocol was developed to provide the best possible comparison between SFI to TDT than would otherwise be possible by using soil moisture as the bench mark, due to variations in soil density between soil water content levels which are known to impact the calibration between TDR's estimate of soil water content from the measured propagation delay which is converted to an apparent permittivity measurement. This experimental decision, to compare propagation delay of TDT to FDT, effectively removes the errors due to variations in packing density from the evaluation and provides a direct comparison between the SFI instrument and the time domain technique of TDT. The tests utilized three soils (a sand, an Acuff loam and an Olton clay-loam) that were packed to varying bulk densities and prepared to provide a range of water contents and electrical conductivities by which to compare the performance of the SFI technology to TDT measurements of propagation delay. For each sample tested, the SFI instrument and the TDT both performed the measurements on the exact same probe, thereby both instruments were measuring the exact same soil/soil-probe response to ensure the most accurate means to compare the SFI instrument to a high-end TDT instrument. Test results provided an estimated instrumental accuracy for the SFI of +/-0.98% of full scale, RMSE basis, for the precision delay lines and +/-1.32% when the SFI was evaluated on loam and clay loam soils, in comparison to TDT as the bench-mark. Results from both experiments provide evidence that the low-cost SFI approach is a viable alternative to conventional TDR/TDT for high accuracy applications.

Analysis of coaxial soil cell in reflection and transmission.

Accurate measurement of moisture content is a prime requirement in hydrological, geophysical and biogeochemical research as well as for material characterization and process control. Within these areas, accurate measurements of the surface area and bound water content is becoming increasingly important for providing answers to many fundamental questions ranging from characterization of cotton fiber maturity, to accurate characterization of soil water content in soil water conservation research to bio-plant water utilization to chemical reactions and diffusions of ionic species across membranes in cells as well as in the dense suspensions that occur in surface films. In these bound water materials, the errors in the traditional time-domain-reflectometer, "TDR", exceed the range of the full span of the material's permittivity that is being measured. Thus, there is a critical need to re-examine the TDR system and identify where the errors are to direct future research. One promising technique to address the increasing demands for higher accuracy water content measurements is utilization of electrical permittivity characterization of materials. This technique has enjoyed a strong following in the soil-science and geological community through measurements of apparent permittivity via time-domain-reflectometery as well in many process control applications. Recent research however, is indicating a need to increase the accuracy beyond that available from traditional TDR. The most logical pathway then becomes a transition from TDR based measurements to network analyzer measurements of absolute permittivity that will remove the adverse effects that high surface area soils and conductivity impart onto the measurements of apparent permittivity in traditional TDR applications. This research examines the theoretical basis behind the coaxial probe, from which the modern TDR probe originated from, to provide a basis on which to perform absolute permittivity measurements. The research reveals currently utilized formulations in accepted techniques for permittivity measurements which violate the underlying assumptions inherent in the basic models due to the TDR acting as an antenna by radiating energy off the end of the probe, rather than returning it back to the source as is the current assumption. To remove the effects of radiation from the experimental results obtain herein, this research utilized custom designed coaxial probes of various diameters and probe lengths by which to test the coaxial cell measurement technique for accuracy in determination of absolute permittivity. In doing so, the research reveals that the basic models available in the literature all omitted a key correction factor that is hypothesized by this research as being most likely due to fringe capacitance. To test this theory, a Poisson model of a coaxial cell was formulated to calculate the effective extra length provided by the fringe capacitance which is then used to correct the experimental results such that experimental measurements utilizing differing coaxial cell diameters and probe lengths, upon correction with the Poisson model derived correction factor, all produce the same results thereby lending support for the use of an augmented measurement technique, described herein, for measurement of absolute permittivity, as opposed to the traditional TDR measurement of apparent permittivity.

The influence of client socioeconomic status on psychotherapists' attributional biases and countertransference reactions.

Clinical reaction related to client socioeconomic status has not been adequately researched, yet socioeconomic status can profoundly affect psychotherapist perceptions of a client's presenting concerns, symptom severity, and prognosis. Using an online national survey, this study examined the influence of client socioeconomic status on psychotherapist cognitive attributions and countertransference reactions (N = 141). Results revealed no significant differences in cognitive attributions based on socioeconomic status. However, significantly stronger countertransference reactions of being dominated by the client with a higher socioeconomic status were found. In addition, the clients with higher socioeconomic status were ascribed with mild problems compared with the client of lower socioeconomic status. Psychotherapeutic implications are discussed.

Fringe capacitance correction for a coaxial soil cell.

Accurate measurement of moisture content is a prime requirement in hydrological, geophysical and biogeochemical research as well as for material characterization and process control. Within these areas, accurate measurements of the surface area and bound water content is becoming increasingly important for providing answers to many fundamental questions ranging from characterization of cotton fiber maturity, to accurate characterization of soil water content in soil water conservation research to bio-plant water utilization to chemical reactions and diffusions of ionic species across membranes in cells as well as in the dense suspensions that occur in surface films. One promising technique to address the increasing demands for higher accuracy water content measurements is utilization of electrical permittivity characterization of materials. This technique has enjoyed a strong following in the soil-science and geological community through measurements of apparent permittivity via time-domain-reflectometry (TDR) as well in many process control applications. Recent research however, is indicating a need to increase the accuracy beyond that available from traditional TDR. The most logical pathway then becomes a transition from TDR based measurements to network analyzer measurements of absolute permittivity that will remove the adverse effects that high surface area soils and conductivity impart onto the measurements of apparent permittivity in traditional TDR applications.This research examines an observed experimental error for the coaxial probe, from which the modern TDR probe originated, which is hypothesized to be due to fringe capacitance. The research provides an experimental and theoretical basis for the cause of the error and provides a technique by which to correct the system to remove this source of error. To test this theory, a Poisson model of a coaxial cell was formulated to calculate the effective theoretical extra length caused by the fringe capacitance which is then used to correct the experimental results such that experimental measurements utilizing differing coaxial cell diameters and probe lengths, upon correction with the Poisson model derived correction factor, all produce the same results thereby lending support and for an augmented measurement technique for measurement of absolute permittivity.

Mineralizable phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon relationships in dairy manure at various carbon-to-phosphorus ratios.

Phosphorus (P) in animal manure can be an important nutrient for crops or an environmental contaminant if in excess. Organic P in dairy manure may add to the environmentally bioactive P pools upon mineralization. A 353d incubation study of manures containing C:P between 83 and 130:1 was conducted to determine linkages between C and P transformations and the effects of C:P on the immobilization-mineralization of manure P. As C:P widened from 83:1 to 130:1, P mineralization increased and phosphate accumulated at rates between 0.013 and 0.021mgkg(-1) d(-1). Water-extractable C was positively correlated with N:P, particularly at narrow C:P (P<0.001). Absence of a negative feedback by phosphate suggested that P mineralization occurred with degradation of organic P-containing C substrates and appeared incidental to microbial P needs. Carbon content in manure may be managed to lower risks of elevated soluble P and C losses under non-limiting N conditions.

Concurrent validity of the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale for clients with schizophrenia.

Although the Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scale is a widely utilized instrument, little data on construct validity is available about its use with clients having schizophrenia. This study compared point-specific GAF scores with concurrent ratings of symptomatology and social and occupational impairments using the Functional Assessment Rating Scale (Ward & Dow, 1994). A linear multiple regression analysis of empirical data from investigations of clients' global functioning showed that increased work and school-related problems, danger to others, and psychotic symptoms predicted lower GAF scores. In general, GAF scores seem to reflect the construct of global psychological, social, and occupational functioning that the scale was designed to measure.

Substance abuse and psychosocial impairments among clients with schizophrenia.

Substance abuse is one of the most common comorbid conditions among clients with schizophrenia. This study assessed correlates of current substance abuse severity not evaluated in past research (e.g., manic symptoms, traumatic stress, self-care deficits, interpersonal relationship problems), as well as factors previously shown to be associated with substance abuse among clients with schizophrenia (e.g., age, gender, depressive symptoms, psychotic symptoms, work/school problems, legal problems). Multiple regression analyses revealed that more severe self-care deficits and less extreme psychotic symptomatology were related to exacerbated symptoms of substance abuse. Implications of these findings for future research are discussed.

Psychotherapists' countertransference reactions toward clients with antisocial personality disorder and schizophrenia: an empirical test of theory.

Contemporary theoretical and clinical literature asserts that countertransference reactions are common and may be specific to clients' presenting concerns and interpersonal styles. Although this phenomenon has broad implications for psychotherapy training and practice, little empirical research is available to support these claims. This study investigated the phenomenon of client-induced countertransference toward two client populations that may evoke strong reactions in psychotherapists--persons with Antisocial Personality Disorder and Schizophrenia. Results of a MANOVA and follow-up ANOVAs indicate that psychotherapists displayed significantly stronger feelings of being dominated (i.e., exploited, manipulated, talked down to) by clients with Antisocial Personality Disorders. Counselors manifested significantly stronger positive feelings (i.e., being liked and welcomed and being in charge, that is, being put in a decision-making role) when working with clients having Schizophrenia. We discuss research and clinical implications of these findings.

Examining anxiety as a predictor of homicidality: a pilot study.

Homicidality rates have been shown to be more prominent among persons diagnosed with mental disorders as compared to the general population. However, the role that anxiety plays in homicidal ideation and intent is poorly understood. This study investigated predictors of homicidal intent, thought, or plan in an adult population of psychiatric inpatients diagnosed with anxiety disorders. Results suggest that the factors most strongly associated with homicidality include male gender, substance abuse, mania, and current legal problems. Multiple regression analyses showed that only male gender predicted homicidality when other variables were taken into account.

Convergent validity of the Beck Depression Inventory for Youth.

This study investigated the convergent validity of the Beck Depression Inventory for Youth in a sample of 34 children (22 boys, 12 girls) who ranged in age from 7 to 14 years (M= 11.3, SD=2.3) by comparing scores with simultaneous ratings on the Children's Depression Inventory. Analysis indicated that the sets of scores correlated very strongly regardless of age or sex. Given that this Beck Depression Inventory has fewer items and is guided by a strong theoretical premise, this scale may be a valuable tool for use with youth by clinicians in various mental health disciplines.

Suicidality and psychosis: the predictive potential of symptomatology and insight into illness.

Recent research indicates that suicidal ideation and intent effect the majority of psychotic patients, a large proportion of whom eventually complete suicide. Some evidence suggests that psychotic symptomatology and awareness of the disorder may increase the suicidal risk in this patient population. This study investigated the predictive potential of insight into illness, years of treatment, recent traumatic stress, and depressive, manic, cognitive, anxiety, and psychotic symptomatology in the genesis of suicidality with psychotic patients. Results showed that increased insight into illness, fewer years of treatment, and more severe depressive symptoms each significantly heightened patients' risk of suicidality. Research and practice implications of these findings are discussed.

Relationship of depression and anxiety to cancer patients' medical decision-making.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relation of depression and anxiety to cancer patients' medical decision-making. Participants were 79 rural and urban cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. The four decisional styles of the Decisional Processing Model were the independent variables. Dependent variables were anxiety and depression, measured by Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety and the Center for Disease Control Depression Scale, respectively. Consistent with the Decisional Processing Model, analysis suggested that patients make medical decisions by information seeking, information processing, advice following, or ruminating. Decisional style did not vary according to type or stage of cancer, prognosis, time elapsed since initial diagnosis, or whether cancer was initial or recurrent. Decisional style did not systematically vary with depression and anxiety suggesting how a person makes decisions is a stable personality trait. Thus, decision-making may follow a cognitive schema. It is likely that patients' decisional styles help to manage anxiety and depression when confronted with life-threatening illness. Implications for informed consent and patients' involvement in decision-making are discussed.

Construct validity of the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale for clients with anxiety disorder.

The Global Assessment of Functioning Scale is a widely used although poorly researched measurement of overall mental health or illness. This study investigated construct validity for clients with anxiety disorder. Analysis suggests that current suicidality was the most significant predictor of ratings. Current homicidality, work/school problems, and inability to care for oneself were not significantly correlated with scale ratings.

Countertransference reactions toward specific client populations: a review of empirical literature.

Countertransference reactions can either benefit or hinder mental health professionals during the therapeutic process. An awareness of countertransference reactions can aid clinicians in understanding and anticipating their own specific emotional responses toward certain client populations. Recent empirical research suggests that common countertransference reactions may occur in mental health professionals when relating to certain client types. Since a literature review indicated that more numerous and reliable tests have been developed to measure countertransference during the past decade, as well as better research designs, this article reviews and summarizes all empirical research studies on countertransference reactions toward specific client populations during the past 10 years, from 1990 to 2001.

Homicidality in schizophrenia: a replication study.

This study attempted to replicate the results of R. C. Schwartz, S. Petersen, and J. L. Skaggs (2001) by testing predictors of homicidality in a new sample of participants with schizophrenia. Results of multiple regression analyses showed that manic symptoms and substance abuse were significantly positively correlated with more extreme homicidality. Global Assessment of Functioning scale ratings were significantly negatively correlated with ratings on homicidality. Finally, men displayed significantly heightened homicidality as compared with women. These findings lend support to the hypothesis that clinicians should pay particular attention to evaluating homicidality in patients who are male, have schizophrenia, who abuse substances, who show acute manic symptoms, and whose global functioning has recently declined.