Cross talk between the Akt and p38α pathways in macrophages downstream of Toll-like receptor signaling.

The stimulation of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) on macrophages by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) results in the activation of intracellular signaling pathways that are required for initiating a host immune response. Both phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways are activated rapidly in response to TLR activation and are required to coordinate effective host responses to pathogen invasion. In this study, we analyzed the role of the p38-dependent kinases MK2/3 in the activation of Akt and show that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced phosphorylation of Akt on Thr308 and Ser473 requires p38α and MK2/3. In cells treated with p38 inhibitors or an MK2/3 inhibitor, phosphorylation of Akt on Ser473 and Thr308 is reduced and Akt activity is inhibited. Furthermore, BMDMs deficient in MK2/3 display greatly reduced phosphorylation of Ser473 and Thr308 following TLR stimulation. However, MK2/3 do not directly phosphorylate Akt in macrophages but act upstream of PDK1 and mTORC2 to regulate Akt phosphorylation. Akt is recruited to phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PIP3) in the membrane, where it is activated by PDK1 and mTORC2. Analysis of lipid levels in MK2/3-deficient bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) revealed a role for MK2/3 in regulating Akt activity by affecting availability of PIP3 at the membrane. These data describe a novel role for p38α-MK2/3 in regulating TLR-induced Akt activation in macrophages.

Monitoring protein-protein interactions in mammalian cells by trans-SUMOylation.

Protein-protein interactions are essential for almost all cellular processes, hence understanding these processes mainly depends on the identification and characterization of the relevant protein-protein interactions. In the present paper, we introduce the concept of TRS (trans-SUMOylation), a new method developed to identify and verify protein-protein interactions in mammalian cells in vivo. TRS utilizes Ubc9-fusion proteins that trans-SUMOylate co-expressed interacting proteins. Using TRS, we analysed interactions of 65 protein pairs co-expressed in HEK (human embryonic kidney)-293 cells. We identified seven new and confirmed 16 known protein interactions, which were determined via endogenous SUMOylation sites of the binding partners or by using SUMOylation-site tags respectively. Four of the new protein interactions were confirmed by GST (glutathione transferase) pull-down and the p38α-Edr2 interaction was verified by co-localization analysis. Functionally, this p38α-Edr2 interaction could possibly be involved in the recruitment of p38α to the polycomb chromatin-remodelling complex to phosphorylate Bmi1. We also used TRS to characterize protein-interaction domains of the protein kinase pairs p38α-MK2 [MK is MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase)-activated protein kinase] and ERK3 (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 3)-MK5 and of the p38α-p53 complex. The ability of TRS to monitor protein interactions in mammalian cells in vivo at levels similar to endogenous expression makes it an excellent new tool that can help in defining the protein interactome of mammalian cells.

p38 MAP kinase and MAPKAP kinases MK2/3 cooperatively phosphorylate epithelial keratins.

The MAPK-activated protein kinases (MAPKAP kinases) MK2 and MK3 are directly activated via p38 MAPK phosphorylation, stabilize p38 by complex formation, and contribute to the stress response. The list of substrates of MK2/3 is increasing steadily. We applied a phosphoproteomics approach to compare protein phosphorylation in MK2/3-deficient cells rescued or not by ectopic expression of MK2. In addition to differences in phosphorylation of the known substrates of MK2, HSPB1 and Bag-2, we identified strong differences in phosphorylation of keratin 8 (K8). The phosphorylation of K8-Ser(73) is catalyzed directly by p38, which in turn shows MK2-dependent expression. Notably, analysis of small molecule p38 inhibitors on K8-Ser(73) phosphorylation also demonstrated reduced phosphorylations of keratins K18-Ser(52) and K20-Ser(13) but not of K8-Ser(431) or K18-Ser(33). Interestingly, K18-Ser(52) and K20-Ser(13) are not directly phosphorylated by p38 in vitro, but by MK2. Furthermore, anisomycin-stimulated phosphorylations of K20-Ser(13) and K18-Ser(52) are inhibited by small molecule inhibitors of both p38 and MK2. MK2 knockdown in HT29 cells leads to reduced K20-Ser(13) phosphorylation, which further supports the notion that MK2 is responsible for K20 phosphorylation in vivo. Physiologic relevance of these findings was confirmed by differences of K20-Ser(13) phosphorylation between the ileum of wild-type and MK2/3-deficient mice and by demonstrating p38- and MK2-dependent mucin secretion of HT29 cells. Therefore, MK2 and p38 MAPK function in concert to phosphorylate K8, K18, and K20 in intestinal epithelia.

MAPKAP kinases MK2 and MK3 in inflammation: complex regulation of TNF biosynthesis via expression and phosphorylation of tristetraprolin.

Downstream of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), three structurally related MAPK-activated protein kinases (MAPKAPKs or MKs) - MK2, MK3 and MK5 - signal to diverse cellular targets. Although there is no known common function for all three MKs, MK2 and MK3 are mainly involved in regulation of gene expression at the post-transcriptional level and are implicated in inflammation and cancer. MK2 and MK3 are phosphorylated and activated by p38(MAPKα,ß) and, in turn phosphorylate various substrates involved in diverse cellular processes. In addition to forwarding of the p38-signal by MK2/3, protein complex formation between MK2/3 and p38 mutually stabilizes these enzymes and affects p38(MAPK) signaling in general. Among the substrates of MK2/3, there are mRNA-AU-rich-element (ARE)-binding proteins, such as tristetraprolin (TTP) and hnRNP A0, which regulate mRNA stability and translation in a phosphorylation-dependent manner. Phosphorylation by MK2 stabilizes TTP, releases ARE-containing mRNAs, such as TNF-mRNA, from default translational repression and inhibits their nucleolytic degradation. Here we demonstrate that MK2/3 also contribute to the de novo synthesis of TTP. Whether this contribution proceeds via transcription factors directly targeted by MK2/3 or via chromatin remodeling by the reported binding of MK2/3 to the polycomb repressive complex is still open. A model is proposed, which demonstrates how this new function of transcriptional activation of TTP by MK2/3 cooperates with the role of MK2/3 in post-transcriptional gene expression to limit the inflammatory response.

Fluorescence-based quantitative scratch wound healing assay demonstrating the role of MAPKAPK-2/3 in fibroblast migration.

The scratch wound healing assay is a sensitive method to characterize cell proliferation and migration, but it is difficult to be quantitatively evaluated. Therefore, we developed an infrared fluorescence detection-based real-time assay for sensitive and accurate quantification of cell migration in vitro. The method offers sensitivity, simplicity, and the potential for integration into automated large-scale screening studies. A live cell staining lipophilic tracer-1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethyl indotricarbocyanine iodide (DiR)-is used for accurate imaging of wound closure in a simple 96-well scratch assay. Scratches are made on prestained confluent cell monolayers using a pipette tip and scanned at different time intervals using a fluorescent scanner. Images are analyzed using Image J software and the migration index is calculated. Effect of cell number, time after scratch and software settings are analyzed. The method is validated by showing concentration- and time-dependent effects of cytochalasin-D on fibroblast migration. Using this assay, we quantitatively evaluate the role of the MAPK-activated protein kinases MK2 and MK3 in fibroblast migration. First, the migratory phenotype of MK2-deficient MEFs is analyzed in a retroviral rescue model. In addition, migration of MK2/3-double-deficient cells is determined and the ability of MK3 to rescue cell migration in MK2/3-double-deficient fibroblasts is demonstrated.

MAPKAP kinase MK2 maintains self-renewal capacity of haematopoietic stem cells.

The structurally related MAPK-activated protein kinases (MAPKAPKs or MKs) MK2, MK3 and MK5 are involved in multiple cellular functions, including cell-cycle control and cellular differentiation. Here, we show that after deregulation of cell-cycle progression, haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in MK2-deficient mice are reduced in number and show an impaired ability for competitive repopulation in vivo. To understand the underlying molecular mechanism, we dissected the role of MK2 in association with the polycomb group complex (PcG) and generated a MK2 mutant, which is no longer able to bind to PcG. The reduced ability for repopulation is rescued by re-introduction of MK2, but not by the Edr2-non-binding mutant of MK2. Thus, MK2 emerges as a regulator of HSC homeostasis, which could act through chromatin remodelling by the PcG complex.