Current Concepts in Concussion: Initial Evaluation and Management.

Mild traumatic brain injury, also known as concussion, is common in adults and youth and is a major health concern. Concussion is caused by direct or indirect external trauma to the head resulting in shear stress to brain tissue from rotational or angular forces. Concussion can affect a variety of clinical domains: physical, cognitive, and emotional or behavioral. Signs and symptoms are nonspecific; therefore, a temporal relationship between an appropriate mechanism of injury and symptom onset must be determined. Headache is the most common symptom. Initial evaluation involves eliminating concern for cervical spine injury and more serious traumatic brain injury before diagnosis is established. Tools to aid diagnosis and monitor recovery include symptom checklists, neuropsychological tests, postural stability tests, and sideline assessment tools. If concussion is suspected in an athlete, the athlete should not return to play until medically cleared. Brief cognitive and physical rest are key components of initial management. Initial management also involves patient education and reassurance and symptom management. Individuals recover from concussion differently; therefore, rigid guidelines have been abandoned in favor of an individualized approach. As symptoms resolve, patients may gradually return to activity as tolerated. Those with risk factors, such as more severe symptoms immediately after injury, may require longer recovery periods. There is limited research in the younger population; however, given concern for potential consequences of injury to the developing brain, a more conservative approach to management is warranted.

Current concepts in concussion: evaluation and management.

Concussion is a disturbance in brain function caused by direct or indirect force to the head. It is a functional rather than structural injury that results from shear stress to brain tissue caused by rotational or angular forces-direct impact to the head is not required. Initial evaluation involves eliminating cervical spine injury and serious traumatic brain injury. Headache is the most common symptom of concussion, although a variety of clinical domains (e.g., somatic, cognitive, affective) can be affected. Signs and symptoms are nonspecific; therefore, a temporal relationship between an appropriate mechanism of injury and symptoms must be determined. There are numerous assessment tools to aid diagnosis, including symptom checklists, neuropsychological tests, postural stability tests, and sideline assessment tools. These tools are also used to monitor recovery. Cognitive and physical rest are the cornerstones of initial management. There are no specific treatments for concussion; therefore, focus is on managing symptoms and return to play. Because concussion recovery is variable, rigid classification systems have mostly been abandoned in favor of an individualized approach. A graded return-to-play protocol can be implemented once a patient has recovered in all affected domains. Children, adolescents, and those with a history of concussions may require a longer recovery period. There is limited research on the management of concussions in children and adolescents, but concern for potential consequences of injury to the developing brain suggests that a more conservative approach to management is appropriate in these patients.

Return to activity at altitude after high-altitude illness.

CONTEXT: Sports and other activities at high altitude are popular, yet they pose the unique risk for high-altitude illness (HAI). Once those who have suffered from a HAI recover, they commonly desire or need to perform the same activity at altitude in the immediate or distant future. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: As based on key text references and peer-reviewed journal articles from a Medline search, this article reviews the pathophysiology and general treatment principles of HAI. RESULTS: In addition to the type of HAI experienced and the current level of recovery, factors needing consideration in the return-to-play plan include physical activity requirements, flexibility of the activity schedule, and available medical equipment and facilities. Most important, adherence to prudent acclimatization protocols and gradual ascent recommendations (when above 3000 m, no more than 600-m net elevation gain per day, and 1 rest day every 1 to 2 ascent days) is powerful in its preventive value and thus strongly recommended. When these are not practical, prophylactic medications (acetazolamide, dexamethasone, salmeterol, nifedipine, or phosphodiesterase inhibitors, depending on the type of prior HAI) may be prescribed and can reduce the risk of illness. Athletes with HAI should be counseled that physical and mental performance may be adversely affected if activity at altitude continues before recovery is complete and that there is a risk of progression to a more serious HAI. CONCLUSION: With a thoughtful plan, most recurrent HAI in athletes can be prevented.

Evaluation of nausea and vomiting.

A comprehensive history and physical examination can often reveal the cause of nausea and vomiting, making further evaluation unnecessary. Acute symptoms generally are the result of infectious, inflammatory, or iatrogenic causes. Most infections are self-limiting and require minimal intervention; iatrogenic causes can be resolved by removing the offending agent. Chronic symptoms are usually a pathologic response to any of a variety of conditions. Gastrointestinal etiologies include obstruction, functional disorders, and organic diseases. Central nervous system etiologies are primarily related to conditions that increase intracranial pressure, and typically cause other neurologic signs. Pregnancy is the most common endocrinologic cause of nausea and must be considered in any woman of childbearing age. Numerous metabolic abnormalities and psychiatric diagnoses also may cause nausea and vomiting. Evaluation should first focus on detecting any emergencies or complications that require hospitalization. Attention should then turn to identifying the underlying cause and providing specific therapies. When the cause cannot be determined, empiric therapy with an antiemetic is appropriate. Initial diagnostic testing should generally be limited to basic laboratory tests and plain radiography. Further testing, such as upper endoscopy or computed tomography of the abdomen, should be determined by clinical suspicion based on a complete history and physical examination.