Standing on the shoulders of a giant: The legacy of Robert M. Sellers.

Robert M. Sellers, PhD, most known for his influential and highly cited Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI), is one of the most prolific and foundational Black scholars in psychology. From racial identity theory development and measurement to conceptual and methodological innovations in studying the lived experiences of Black people, Sellers' scholarship centers on the lives of Black communities. Sellers' mentorship and contributions to the professional development of scholars and professionals of color have supported and catalyzed new intergenerational knowledge building by these scholars, ensuring a perpetuating and far-reaching legacy in psychology. In this article, we: (a) celebrate Sellers' enduring contribution to the racial identity literature and its profound impact on psychology as a discipline as well as numerous subfields of psychology, (b) outline his contributions to the racial socialization literature, (c) describe methodological innovations in racial identity and racial socialization research advanced through his scholarship, and (d) summarize his contributions in professional development and mentorship and his leadership roles. Sellers' scholarly contributions and mentorship have transformed the discipline of psychology and the social sciences broadly speaking, making him one of the most influential psychologists in the modern era. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Spencer's phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST): Charting its origin and impact.

This article examines the origin and scholarly impact of Dr. Margaret Beale Spencer's phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST). We expound on her early foundational work replicating the Clark and Clark (1950) doll study and research during the period of "Atlanta's missing and murdered children." As a conceptual template, we anchor the theoretical contribution as introducing phenomenology and "net vulnerability" as factors that inform "emerging identities." Highlighted research focuses on synergistic themes associated with identity intersectionality, pubertal development, and education as a context for net vulnerability. We end with suggestions for future directions for PVEST. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Depressive symptoms, racism, and school belonging: examining correlates of substance use behaviors among Black college students.

College is a context in which Black adults are at heightened risk for substance use behaviors and subsequently more harmful consequences. Increasingly, scholars are recognizing that to better understand shifts in patterns of substance use behaviors and health disparities among Black adults, mental health and racism are important factors to consider. Racism is multidimensional; thus, research is needed to investigate its multiple forms. Currently, it is unknown how the occurrence of depressive symptoms and various racism experiences influence patterns of substance use behaviors among Black college students. Further, while school belonging is evidenced to promote better health outcomes during adolescence, research is needed to understand school belonging in relation to substance use among Black college students. Using latent profile analysis (LPA), we identify patterns of substance use behaviors among Black college students (N = 152) and examine whether depressive symptoms, racism experiences (i.e., racial discrimination stress, internalized racism, negative police encounters), and school belonging are associated with the unique patterns. Latent profiles included indicators of substance use behavior frequency. Four patterns emerged: 1) low substance use, 2) predominant alcohol use, 3) co-use, 4) high polysubstance use. Depressive symptoms, internalized racism, and negative police encounters were significant correlates of patterns of substance use behaviors. School belonging, specifically, participation in student, cultural, spiritual, and Greek organizations, was also associated with profile membership. Findings suggest a need to integrate a broader understanding of how mental health and racism impacts the lives of Black college students, in addition to processes for supporting school belonging.

Racial Discrimination Experiences and Friendship Network Dynamics Among Black and Latinx Youth.

Despite a robust volume of evidence documenting adverse effects of racial discrimination experiences on adolescent adjustment outcomes, relatively little is known about the relational consequences of racial discrimination experiences for adolescent friendship networks. To address this gap, this study examines how racial discrimination experiences shape and are shaped by friendship network dynamics in early and middle adolescence. The current study's goals were to explicate whether relational consequences of racial discrimination experiences for friendship network selection differed between interracial and intraracial friendships among Black and Latinx youth, and how these adolescents were influenced by their friends' racial discrimination experiences. Longitudinal social network analysis was used among a sample of predominantly Latinx and Black middle school students from the southwestern U.S. (n = 1034; 50.1% boys, Mage = 12.1, 13.8% White, 18.6% Black, 53.1% Latinx, 14.4% Other race and multiracial). The results showed that Black and Latinx youth preferred intraracial friends. Above and beyond that, Black youth were more likely to have intraracial friendships when the focal individual reported lower levels of general racial discrimination experiences and higher levels of adult-perpetrated racial discrimination experiences. Black and Latinx adolescents reported increases in general racial discrimination experiences over time, as a function of their friends reporting higher levels of racial discrimination (e.g., peer influence). These findings advance developmental research by showing that racial discrimination experiences are consequential for friendship network dynamics by increasing the likelihood of intraracial friend selection among Black youth and through peer influence processes.

Navigating puberty, identity, and race among transnationally, transracially adopted Korean American adolescents.

This exploratory study examined the relation between pubertal timing and dimensions of ethnic-racial identity among adopted Korean Americans raised transracially in White families. The study also examined whether internalized racism moderated the association between pubertal timing and ethnic-racial identity. Adopted Korean American adolescents (N = 202; 108 females; ages 13-19 years) completed measures of pubertal development, ethnic-racial identity, and internalized racism in 2007. There was no significant main effect of pubertal timing for either male or female adolescents. Internalized racism moderated the relation between pubertal timing and ethnic-racial identity clarity (B = -.16, p = .015) among male adolescents. Specifically, earlier pubertal timing was significantly associated with lower ethnic-racial identity clarity for male adolescents with higher levels of internalized racism.

What's Whiteness Got to do With it?

Racism is as ubiquitous as the air we breathe and the water we drink. This special section highlights burgeoning research examining White youth's development in a racist society. This research is urgent given the current political context in the United States. Although promising, developmental science needs to catch up with the groundbreaking research being conducted on Whiteness in other disciplines. Developmental science requires a conceptual reset with the utilization of theories that center racism in youth development acknowledging the privileged status of Whiteness. Developmental science should acknowledge that racism is a universal influence for all youth's development, including White youth.

The associations among racial discrimination, pubertal timing, neighborhoods, and mental health among U.S. Mexican boys.

The present study addressed gaps in puberty and weathering research by examining the relation between peer racial discrimination, pubertal timing, internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and neighborhood context among a longitudinal sample of U.S. Mexican boys. Using three waves of data (N = 383; mean ages: 10.3-15.8 years), we examined the weathering hypothesis: Whether peer racial discrimination experiences in late childhood predicted earlier pubertal timing in adolescence and subsequent mental health problems. We also examined whether variability in youths' neighborhood contexts qualified these associations. Consistent with the weathering hypothesis, exposure to peer racial discrimination in 5th grade, predicated earlier pubertal timing in the 7th grade, which, in turn, predicted increases in internalizing symptoms in the 10th grade. However, this pattern only applied to boys residing in neighborhoods with higher levels of Latinx concentration in 5th grade. Additionally, early timing in the 7th grade predicted increases in externalizing symptoms, but this association was significant only when boys lived in neighborhoods that were lower on Latinx concentration. There was evidence of weathering in context with specific implications for internalizing symptoms, and that neighborhood Latinx concentration was both inhibiting and promoting at unique places in the hypothesized model. The findings advance existing understandings of weathering patterns and individual variation in pubertal timing among U.S. Mexican boys. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Puberty, depressive symptoms, and neighborhood context among African American and Caribbean Black males.

OBJECTIVE: Previous empirical research on pubertal development among Black boys is limited. The present study examined the ethnic-racial composition of neighborhoods as a moderator in the relation between pubertal indicators and depressive symptoms among a nationally representative sample of African American and Caribbean Black boys. METHOD: The present study utilized the male sample (N = 559) from the National Survey of American Life Adolescent sample (Jackson et al., 2004). The sample consists of 395 African American and 164 Caribbean Black boys ages 13-17 years who completed measures of relative pubertal timing, voice changes, pubic hair growth, and depressive symptoms. RESULTS: The results indicate that Black boys with early developing hair growth who lived in neighborhoods with higher percentages of Black residents had higher depressive symptoms compared to their early developing counterparts in neighborhoods with fewer Black residents. African American males with early developing hair growth had higher depressive symptoms compared to Caribbean Black males with early developing hair growth regardless of neighborhood context. CONCLUSION: Early pubertal timing is a risk for African American boys' mental health regardless of neighborhood context. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Racial discrimination, depressive symptoms, ethnic-racial identity, and alcohol use among Black American college students.

BACKGROUND: Racial discrimination is prevalent among Black Americans, and may increase risk for alcohol use and related problems. Understanding the mediating and moderating factors in the pathways linking racial discrimination to alcohol use outcomes is important for prevention and intervention efforts. We tested depressive symptoms as a mediator and ethnic-racial identity as a moderator in the relation between racial discrimination and alcohol use outcomes among Black American young adults. METHODS: We used data from 2 independent samples of Black American young adults recruited from different regions in the United States. The first sample included 383 Black American young adults (Mage = 20.65, SD = 2.28; 81% female), and the second sample included 165 Black American young adults (Mage = 21.56, SD = 4.92; 75% female). RESULTS: Racial discrimination was associated with alcohol consumption and problems indirectly via depressive symptoms across the 2 independent samples. Moderation was evident for one sample such that high private regard levels buffered the association between racial discrimination and alcohol consumption, whereas high public regard levels exacerbated the association between racial discrimination and depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Racial discrimination experiences put Black American young adults at risk for alcohol use and related problems through increased depressive symptoms. Ethnic-racial identity may buffer or exacerbate these associations depending on the specific dimension. The findings imply the need to target depressive symptoms and alcohol use simultaneously to promote health and well-being among Black Americans. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

A prospective examination of neighborhood social and cultural cohesion and parenting processes on ethnic-racial identity among U.S. Mexican adolescents.

Neighborhood social processes may have important implications for parenting processes and ethnic-racial identity (ERI) processes and content in adolescence. Past research suggests that adolescents whose parents engaged in more cultural socialization, an important aspect of parental racial socialization, had higher levels of ERI processes and content. Parenting, however, is also situated within neighborhood contexts and can be influenced by resources available in neighborhoods. For example, having neighbors who share mutual values, trust one another, and appreciate/celebrate one's heritage culture may be a resource that promotes parents' efforts to engage in cultural socialization. We prospectively examined (from x¯age = 10.9-15.8 years) a model in which U.S. Mexican parents' perceptions of neighborhood social and cultural cohesion supported parents' engagement in higher levels of cultural socialization and in turn promoted adolescents' ethnic-racial identity processes and content. We tested a longitudinal mediation model with a sample of 749 U.S. Mexican adolescents (30% Mexico born; 48.9% female) and their parents. Mother-adolescent models suggest mothers' perception of neighborhood social and cultural cohesion in late childhood promoted middle adolescents' ERI affirmation via intermediate increases in maternal cultural socialization. Similar patterns were observed for ERI resolution, but only for adolescents whose mothers were born in the United States. We did not find evidence for mediation in the father-adolescent models. Findings are discussed in the context of the promoting nature of socially and culturally supportive neighborhood environments for U.S. Mexican families and adolescents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Development of a support for Black Lives Matter measure among racially-ethnically diverse college students.

This paper developed and validated a new measure of support for the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement among a racially-ethnically diverse sample of college students. The measure focuses on the movement's principles of Black liberation, intersectionality, and alliance building. Participants included 1934 college students (75% female) from a large public Southwestern university. The factor structure was supported by exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, resulting in an 18-item measure, Support for Black Lives Matter, with two underlying factors. Black Liberation includes 12 items representing support for BLM because of awareness of and challenging structural inequality and racism experienced by Black individuals. Intersectional Values includes six items representing support for BLM because it embraces and affirms marginalized populations within the Black community, especially disabled Blacks, queer Blacks, Black women, and Black families with children. Evidence of criterion-related validity was demonstrated with racial group differences in support of BLM factors. Evidence of convergent validity was supported by significant positive correlations between support for BLM factors and critical consciousness (including awareness of racism, classism, and heterosexism), and negative correlations between support for BLM factors and subtle racist attitudes toward Blacks. Measurement invariance was evident between White, Black, Asian American, Latinx, and Multiracial participants. Implications and suggestions for use of the new measure are discussed.

Exploration of bidirectionality in African American and Latinx adolescents' offline and online ethnic-racial discrimination.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of the present study was to examine longitudinal relations between adolescents' reports of offline (i.e., in-person) ethnic-racial discrimination and adolescents' reports of online ethnic-racial discrimination. METHOD: The study was conducted among a sample of 570 African American and Latinx adolescents (58% female; 10-18 years) over three waves of assessments occurring at yearly intervals. Autoregressive cross-lagged analyses examined potential bidirectional relations of offline ethnic-racial discrimination and online ethnic-racial discrimination. RESULTS: Results indicated that adolescents' more frequent experiences of offline ethnic-racial discrimination predicted more frequent experiences of online ethnic-racial discrimination across time, but that the opposite direction was not supported. CONCLUSIONS: Findings may be used to redefine current theoretical frameworks that assert the bidirectional nature of online and offline experiences, particularly in the domain of ethnic-racial discrimination. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Daily racial discrimination experiences, ethnic-racial identity, and diurnal cortisol patterns among Black adults.

OBJECTIVES: The present study examined the daily relation between racial discrimination experiences and diurnal cortisol patterns among a sample of Black American adults. The daily diary approach afforded the chance to examine how within-person fluctuations in racial discrimination experiences related to same- and next-day changes in cortisol patterns. The use of a lagged approach examines whether exposure to racial discrimination results in diminished outcomes. It was expected that healthy levels of ethnic-racial identity would moderate the relation between racial discrimination and cortisol parameters. METHOD: The participants included 93 Black adults (e.g., 20 males and 73 females) who ranged in age from 17 to 56 years old. Participants completed measures of racial discrimination and ethnic-racial identity, and provided 9 saliva samples. RESULTS: The results indicate that on days when individuals reported increased racial discrimination experiences, they exhibited higher cortisol levels at bedtime and greater overall cortisol output that same day. Lagged analyses revealed that on days when participants reported increased racial discrimination experiences, they exhibited less pronounced cortisol awakening responses and steeper diurnal cortisol slopes the next day. These associations were moderated by high racial centrality levels, high private regard levels, and low public regard levels. CONCLUSIONS: Same-day racial discrimination experiences related to compromised diurnal cortisol patterns. The effects of racial discrimination experiences on next-day physiological functioning largely depended on ethnic-racial identity dimensions, and afforded individuals the ability to recover. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Correction to: Health Implications of Black Lives Matter Among Black Adults.

The names of two coauthors of this article were updated following the article's original publication.

Comparing Associations Between Puberty, Ethnic-Racial Identity, Self-Concept, and Depressive Symptoms Among African American and Caribbean Black Boys.

Research on pubertal development among Black boys is limited. Addressing this gap, we examined associations between three pubertal domains (e.g., voice change, hair growth, and perceived relative timing), depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and self-efficacy, among a nationally representative sample of 395 African American and 164 Caribbean Black boys (Mage  = 15 years). Moderation by ethnic-racial identity (e.g., racial centrality, racial regard) was also explored. Results indicated that for both ethnic subgroups early voice change increased self-esteem; whereas early voice change increased depressive symptoms among boys who felt society views Blacks more negatively. Buffering effects of ethnic-racial identity also varied significantly between the two groups. Findings suggest that the meaning Black boys ascribe to their ethnic-racial group may explain puberty-linked outcomes.

Health Implications of Black Lives Matter Among Black Adults.

OBJECTIVE: The current study examined whether knowledge, understanding and support of the Black Lives Matter movement were positively linked to self-reported physical health among a representative sample of Black American adults. METHODS: The 2016 Collaborative Multiracial Post-election Survey (CMPS) examined attitudes about the 2016 US election, immigration, policing, racial equality, and racial discrimination among Asian American, Black American, Latinx, and White adults. The current study used the Black American sample, which included 3102 individuals (69% female) older than 18 years of age. We used a set of logistic regression models to assess the associations of knowledge, support, and understanding of Black Lives Matter with overall physical health. RESULTS: Although knowledge of Black Lives Matter was not a significant predictor for physical health, understanding and supporting Black Lives Matter significantly predicted positive physical health among Black American adults. CONCLUSIONS: Black American adults who understand and support Black Lives Matter reported more positive overall physical health.

Pubertal timing as a moderator between general discrimination experiences and self-esteem among African American and Caribbean Black youth.

OBJECTIVES: The present study used a nationally representative sample of African American and Caribbean Black adolescents to examine whether relative pubertal timing moderated the relation between general and racial discrimination experiences and self-esteem. It was anticipated that discrimination experiences would be more harmful for early maturing African American and Caribbean Black girls and boys compared to their on-time and late counterparts. METHOD: The participants included 1170 youth (e.g., 563 males and 607 females) from the National Survey of American Life-Adolescent (NSAL-A) who ranged in age from 13 to 17. Youth completed self-report measures of pubertal development, general and racial discrimination experiences, and self-esteem. RESULTS: Moderation was evident such that African American and Caribbean Black girls who perceived their pubertal development as early relative to their same-age and same-sex peers exhibited higher self-esteem than African American and Caribbean Black girls who perceived their development as late at high levels of general discrimination experiences. Moderation was not evident for racial discrimination experiences among African American and Caribbean Black girls, nor was it evident for general and racial discrimination experiences among African American and Caribbean Black males. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that relative pubertal timing operates as a potential moderator for general discrimination experiences among African American and Caribbean Black girls. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Perceptions of Pubertal Timing and Discrimination Among African American and Caribbean Black Girls.

This study used a nationally representative sample of African American and Caribbean Black adolescent females to examine the relation between perceived pubertal timing relative to peers and discriminatory experiences. Participants included the 607 girls who participated in the National Survey of American Life-Adolescent (NSAL-A), and ranged in age from 13 to 17. Most African American girls perceived their development as on-time relative to their same-aged peers; whereas the majority of Caribbean Black girls perceived their development as earlier than their same-aged peers. The results indicated that girls who perceived that their pubertal development was earlier than their same-aged peers reported more general and racial discrimination experiences.

Racial discrimination and racial identity: Daily moderation among Black youth.

The present study examined daily ethnic/racial identity as a moderator for racial discrimination. The idiographic approach was used to understand when Black youth are at risk for negative outcomes in the context of racial discrimination. The current study assessed if within-person changes in racial centrality, private regard, and public regard moderated the daily relation between racial discrimination and depressive symptoms. Daily measures of racial discrimination, ethnic/racial identity, and depressive symptoms were administered to a sample of 103 Black adolescents for 2 weeks. The results suggest that neither racial centrality nor private regard moderated the same-day or lagged associations between daily racial discrimination experiences and daily depressive symptoms. Although low public regard fluctuations evidenced no moderation for the within-day relation, low public regard fluctuations exacerbated the lagged day relation between daily racial discrimination experiences and daily depressive symptoms. When Black youth experienced lower levels of public regard compared to their average levels, previous-day racial discrimination experiences were associated with an increase in depressive symptoms. The results are discussed in the context of within-person changes in ethnic/racial identity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The Intersection of Race and Gender Among Black American Adolescents.

This study employed an exploratory sequential mixed-methods design to examine the intersection of race and gender among Black American adolescents, aged 11-19. The quantitative component (n = 344) used survey data to examine gender differences in peer-perpetrated and adult-perpetrated racial discrimination experiences, and no gender differences were evident. Qualitative data (n = 42) probed how males and females interpret discrimination experiences given the intersection of race and gender. Although the majority of participants believed that Black males and females have similar experiences, some believed that Black males face more racial discrimination. However, analyses revealed social disadvantages for Black females given that they report inappropriate comments and unwelcome hair touching and limited opportunities for interracial dating compared with Black males.