Ciliary abnormalities due to defects in the retrograde transport protein DYNC2H1 in short-rib polydactyly syndrome.

The short-rib polydactyly (SRP) syndromes are a heterogeneous group of perinatal lethal skeletal disorders with polydactyly and multisystem organ abnormalities. Homozygosity by descent mapping in a consanguineous SRP family identified a genomic region that contained DYNC2H1, a cytoplasmic dynein involved in retrograde transport in the cilium. Affected individuals in the family were homozygous for an exon 12 missense mutation that predicted the amino acid substitution R587C. Compound heterozygosity for one missense and one null mutation was identified in two additional nonconsanguineous SRP families. Cultured chondrocytes from affected individuals showed morphologically abnormal, shortened cilia. In addition, the chondrocytes showed abnormal cytoskeletal microtubule architecture, implicating an altered microtubule network as part of the disease process. These findings establish SRP as a cilia disorder and demonstrate that DYNC2H1 is essential for skeletogenesis and growth.

Type XXVII collagen at the transition of cartilage to bone during skeletogenesis.

COL27A1 is a member of the collagen fibrillar gene family and is expressed in cartilaginous tissues including the anlage of endochondral bone. To begin to understand its role in skeletogenesis, the temporospatial distributions of its RNA message and protein product, type XXVII collagen, were determined in developing human skeletal tissues. Laser capture microdissection and quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction demonstrated that gene expression occurred throughout the growth plate and that it was higher in the resting and proliferative zones than in hypertrophic cartilage. Immunohistochemical analyses showed that type XXVII collagen was most evident in hypertrophic cartilage at the primary ossification center and at the growth plate and that it accumulated in the pericellular matrix. Synthesis of type XXVII collagen overlapped partly with that of type X collagen, a marker of chondrocyte hypertrophy, preceded the transition of cartilage to bone, and was associated with cartilage calcification. Immunogold electron microscopy of extracted ECM components from mouse growth plate showed that type XXVII collagen was a component of long non-banded fibrous structures, filamentous networks, and thin banded fibrils. The timing and location of synthesis suggest that type XXVII collagen plays a role during the calcification of cartilage and the transition of cartilage to bone.

Dominance of SOX9 function over RUNX2 during skeletogenesis.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived osteochondroprogenitors express two master transcription factors, SOX9 and RUNX2, during condensation of the skeletal anlagen. They are essential for chondrogenesis and osteogenesis, respectively, and their haploinsufficiency causes human skeletal dysplasias. We show that SOX9 directly interacts with RUNX2 and represses its activity via their evolutionarily conserved high-mobility-group and runt domains. Ectopic expression of full-length SOX9 or its RUNX2-interacting domain in mouse osteoblasts results in an osteodysplasia characterized by severe osteopenia and down-regulation of osteoblast differentiation markers. Thus, SOX9 can inhibit RUNX2 function in vivo even in established osteoblastic lineage. Finally, we demonstrate that this dominant inhibitory function of SOX9 is physiologically relevant in human campomelic dysplasia. In campomelic dysplasia, haploinsufficiency of SOX9 results in up-regulation of the RUNX2 transcriptional target COL10A1 as well as all three members of RUNX gene family. In summary, SOX9 is dominant over RUNX2 function in mesenchymal precursors that are destined for a chondrogenic lineage during endochondral ossification.

GDF5 is a second locus for multiple-synostosis syndrome.

Multiple-synostosis syndrome is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by progressive symphalangism, carpal/tarsal fusions, deafness, and mild facial dysmorphism. Heterozygosity for functional null mutations in the NOGGIN gene has been shown to be responsible for the disorder. However, in a cohort of six probands with multiple-synostosis syndrome, only one was found to be heterozygous for a NOGGIN mutation (W205X). Linkage studies involving the four-generation family of one of the mutation-negative patients excluded the NOGGIN locus, providing genetic evidence of locus heterogeneity. In this family, polymorphic markers flanking the GDF5 locus were found to cosegregate with the disease, and sequence analysis demonstrated that affected individuals in the family were heterozygous for a novel missense mutation that predicts an R438L substitution in the GDF5 protein. Unlike mutations that lead to haploinsufficiency for GDF5 and produce brachydactyly C, the protein encoded by the multiple-synostosis-syndrome allele was secreted as a mature GDF5 dimer. These data establish locus heterogeneity in multiple-synostosis syndrome and demonstrate that the disorder can result from mutations in either the NOGGIN or the GDF5 gene.

Dysregulation of chondrogenesis in human cleidocranial dysplasia.

Cleidocranial dysplasia (CCD) is an autosomal dominant skeletal dysplasia caused by heterozygosity of mutations in human RUNX2. The disorder is characterized by delayed closure of the fontanel and hypoplastic clavicles that result from defective intramembranous ossification. However, additional features, such as short stature and cone epiphyses, also suggest an underlying defect in endochondral ossification. Here, we report observations of growth-plate abnormalities in a patient with a novel RUNX2 gene mutation, a single C insertion (1228insC), which is predicted to lead to a premature termination codon and thus to haploinsufficiency of RUNX2 and the CCD phenotype. Histological analysis of the rib and long-bone cartilages showed a markedly diminished zone of hypertrophy. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis of limb cartilage RNA showed a 5-10-fold decrease in the hypertrophic chondrocyte molecular markers VEGF, MMP13, and COL10A1. Together, these data show that humans with CCD have altered endochondral ossification due to altered RUNX2 regulation of hypertrophic chondrocyte-specific genes during chondrocyte maturation.

A transcriptional profile of human fetal cartilage.

Cartilage plays a central role in the patterning and growth of the skeletal elements, and mutations in genes expressed in cartilage are responsible for at least 250 distinct clinical conditions, the osteochondrodysplasias. While recent progress has been made in characterizing the genes that define cartilage biology, there are only limited data describing the gene expression profile of human cartilage. Here we describe the sequences and identities of 6266 clones from an 18-20-week human fetal cartilage cDNA library. Among the sequences, BLAST analysis identified 2404 individual transcripts. Of these, 1775 were defined as derived from characterized genes and the remaining 629 were classified as representing the products of uncharacterized genes. Analysis of the relative representation of each individual transcript showed that the 186 most abundant cDNAs in the library accounted for almost half (47.7%) of the clones. The most highly expressed gene was COL2A1, accounting for 4.15% of all cDNA clones. The cDNAs identified included clones derived from 27 genes which, when mutated, result in disorders of skeletal patterning, development and growth. There were cDNAs representing 22 genes encoding collagen subunits. The genes encoding the identified cDNAs represent candidates for the approximately 100 osteochondrodysplasias for which the causative gene has not yet been identified. Moreover, these data provide an extensive profile of human fetal cartilage gene expression at this developmental stage.

Mutations in the gene encoding filamin B disrupt vertebral segmentation, joint formation and skeletogenesis.

The filamins are cytoplasmic proteins that regulate the structure and activity of the cytoskeleton by cross-linking actin into three-dimensional networks, linking the cell membrane to the cytoskeleton and serving as scaffolds on which intracellular signaling and protein trafficking pathways are organized (reviewed in refs. 1,2). We identified mutations in the gene encoding filamin B in four human skeletal disorders. We found homozygosity or compound heterozygosity with respect to stop-codon mutations in autosomal recessive spondylocarpotarsal syndrome (SCT, OMIM 272460) and missense mutations in individuals with autosomal dominant Larsen syndrome (OMIM 150250) and the perinatal lethal atelosteogenesis I and III phenotypes (AOI, OMIM 108720; AOIII, OMIM 108721). We found that filamin B is expressed in human growth plate chondrocytes and in the developing vertebral bodies in the mouse. These data indicate an unexpected role in vertebral segmentation, joint formation and endochondral ossification for this ubiquitously expressed cytoskeletal protein.

Vitronectin's basic domain is a syndecan ligand which functions in trans to regulate vitronectin turnover.

During the process of tissue remodeling, vitronectin (Vn) is deposited in the extracellular matrix where it plays a key role in the regulation of pericellular proteolysis and cell motility. In previous studies we have shown that extracellular levels of vitronectin are controlled by receptor-mediated endocytosis and that this process is dependent upon vitronectin binding to sulfated proteoglycans. We have now identified vitronectin's 12 amino acid "basic domain" which is contained within the larger 40 amino acid heparin binding domain, as a syndecan binding site. Recombinant vitronectins representing wild type vitronectin (rVn) and vitronectin with the basic domain deleted (rVnDelta347-358) were prepared in a baculoviral expression system. The rVn as well as a glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion protein, consisting of vitronectin's 40 amino acid heparin binding domain (GST-VnHBD), exhibited dose dependent binding to HT-1080 cell surfaces, which was attenuated following deletion of the basic domain. In addition, GST-VnHBD supported both HT-1080 and dermal fibroblast cell adhesion, which was also dependent upon the basic domain. Similarly, ARH-77 cells transfected with syndecans -1, -2, or -4, but not Glypican-1, adhered to GST-VnHBD coated wells, while adhesion of these same cells was lost following deletion of the basic domain. HT-1080 cells were unable to degrade rVnDelta347-358. Degradation of rVnDelta347-358 was completely recovered in the presence of GST-VnHBD but not in the presence of GST-VnHBDDelta347-358. These results indicate that turnover of soluble vitronectin requires ligation of vitronectin's basic domain and that this binding event can work in trans to regulate vitronectin degradation.

Isolation of a new member of the ADP-ribosylation like factor gene family, ARL8, from a cartilage cDNA library.

ADP-ribosylation factors (ARFs) and ARF-like proteins (ARLs) are part of the ARF family within the RAS superfamily of regulatory GTPases. Guanine nucleotide binding proteins or GTPases are involved in a diverse spectrum of cellular activities, including regulating cell growth and signal transduction, organization of the cytoskeleton and regulating membrane trafficking along the exocytic and endocytic pathways. ARL proteins share 40-60% sequence identity with the ARF proteins, but ARLs can be distinguished from ARFs based on expression patterns and biological functions. We have identified a new ARL, ARL8, from a fetal cartilage cDNA library. ARL8 contains six exons and five introns, and encodes a 179 amino acid protein that shares homology to the other ARL proteins, especially ARL5. It also shows significant homology with orthologous proteins found in Mus musculus and Drosophila melanogaster. The expression pattern of the mouse ortholog revealed differential tissue expression and an alternate transcript was seen in brain that was age-dependent. ARL8 is an additional member of a family of closely related proteins that are conserved both within the family and across species.

Analysis of clones from a human cartilage cDNA library provides insight into chondrocyte gene expression and identifies novel candidate genes for the osteochondrodysplasias.

To begin to define the gene expression pattern in fetal cartilage and to identify uncharacterized candidate genes for the osteochondrodysplasias, we analyzed clones from a fetal cartilage cDNA library. Sequence analysis of 420 cDNA clones identified 210 clones derived from established genes but, for many of them, expression in cartilage had not been previously reported. Among the established genes were 14 genes known to produce skeletal abnormalities in either humans or mice when mutated. Thirty-two uncharacterized genes and their respective chromosomal positions were also identified. To further understand the expression profile of these genes in fetal cartilage, we constructed a cDNA microarray utilizing the clones. The microarray was used to determine which genes had higher expression in cartilage as compared with dedifferentiated, cultured chondrocytes. Many of the established genes, as well as five of the uncharacterized genes, had increased expression in cartilage, suggesting an important role for these genes in the differentiated state of chondrocytes. These data provide new candidate genes for the osteochondrodysplasias and demonstrate the usefulness of cartilage cDNA microarrays in expanding our understanding of the complexity of fetal cartilage gene expression.