High performing male with fragile X syndrome with an unmethylated FMR1 full mutation: The relevance of clinical and genetic correlations.

A high performing male with an unmethylated full mutation in the fragile X messenger ribonucleoprotein 1 (FMR1) gene surpassed our expectations into young adulthood. Although initial genetic findings helped make a correct fragile X syndrome (FXS) determination, the report was insufficient. Ten years later, we repeated and conducted additional genetic and clinical studies to determine whether more information could assist with treatment and counseling. The genetic findings were very consistent with his high functioning and would have enabled us to be more confident about a good developmental outcome had they been available previously. As FXS enters the mainstream of well-understood genetic disorders and technological advancements improve genetic tests, it should be clearer to clinical providers what a full FXS assessment could include to provide high quality information for care. For individuals with FXS who are high functioning, their families and clinical professionals would benefit from knowing more genetic findings, including, most importantly, methylation status, but also the FMR1 protein (FMRP) level and mRNA level. While we now know that obtaining only the CGG repeat number is not always adequate to inform accurate clinical care, future studies are likely to show the benefit of studying other biomarkers, such as mRNA levels.

Subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma in a 25-year-old male patient with sickle cell disease.

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a hereditary blood disorder that often has multiple comorbidities. Patients occasionally develop malignant neoplasms, but the risk of lymphoma in SCD is currently unknown. Here, we report a unique case of subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma (SPTCL) in a 25-year-old male patient with SCD. The patient suffered from episodes of sickling crisis since his initial SCD diagnosis and had been treated with supportive care. Hydroxyurea was added at the age of 23 years old. Two years later, he presented with right cheek swelling, and the biopsy showed a lymphohistiocytic infiltrate within adipose tissue resembling lobular panniculitis. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated CD8/ß-F1-positive T-cells around the fat vacuoles, with a high proliferative index. The histopathologic features suggested a diagnosis of SPTCL. A subsequent TCRß gene rearrangement analysis detected a clonal amplicon, confirming the diagnosis. Because of the lack of systemic symptoms, the patient received conservative therapy with prednisone and responded well with resolution of his right cheek swelling within one month. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported case of SPTCL associated with SCD. The proposed lymphomagenesis in the setting of SCD is also discussed.

Yield of Malignant Pleural Effusion for Detection of Oncogenic Driver Mutations in Lung Adenocarcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Pleural fluid can be used to assess targetable mutations in patients with lung adenocarcinoma. The primary objective of this study was to assess the yield of pleural fluid cytology for targetable oncogenic mutations (EGFR, KRAS, BRAF, ALK, and ROS1 gene rearrangements). We also assessed pleural fluid volume necessary for molecular testing. METHODS: Retrospective review was performed of 134 consecutive patients with lung adenocarcinoma associated malignant pleural effusions. EGFR and KRAS testing was done using PCR amplification followed by DNA sequencing, or next generation sequencing in more recent cases that included BRAF assessment. Fluorescence in situ hybridization employing break-apart probes was used to test for ALK and ROS1 rearrangements. RESULTS: Mutation analysis on pleural fluid cell-block was performed on 56 patients. It was adequate for complete analysis ordered including EGFR, KRAS, BRAF, ALK, and ROS1 rearrangements on 40 (71.4%) samples. For individual mutations, EGFR testing was possible in 38 of 49 (77.6%); KRAS 22 of 28 (78.6%); BRAF 10 of 13 (76.9%), ALK gene rearrangement 42 of 51 (82.4%) and ROS1 gene rearrangement in 21 of 28 (75%) pleural fluid specimens. The analysis was satisfactory in 13 of 19 (68.4%) samples with ≤100 mL versus 27 of 37 (72.9%) with >100 mL of fluid tested (P-value=0.7). CONCLUSION: Genetic mutation analysis can be performed on malignant pleural effusions secondary to lung adenocarcinoma, independent of fluid volume.

CD3-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma relapses as CD3-negative large B-cell lymphoma: Loss of aberrant antigen expression in B-cell lymphoma after chemotherapy.

Aberrant expression of CD3 on diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is rare, and its mechanism and biological significance are currently unclear. Herein we report a case of Epstein-Barr virus-negative, CD3-positive DLBCL in a 53 year-old male, who had a remote history of renal transplantation. After standard chemotherapy, the patient was in clinical remission. He relapsed three years later, but at this time with apparent loss of CD3 expression. PCR-based IGK gene rearrangement studies demonstrated clonal amplicons with an identical nucleotide size between the primary and secondary DLBCL, confirming the clonal relationship despite their phenotypic differences. To our knowledge, this is the first case of CD3-positive DLBCL that demonstrated a loss of aberrant CD3 on relapse. The chronologic change in phenotype seen in this case suggests that the source of the patient's lymphoma relapse may arise from either a quiescent subclone without CD3 expression, or from an upstream neoplastic precursor cell.

Epstein-Barr virus-negative diffuse large B cell lymphoma with aberrant expression of CD3 and other T cell-associated antigens: report of three cases with a review of the literature.

Expression of CD3 on a mature B cell neoplasm, such as diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL), is extremely rare. When it is present, it will cause diagnostic confusion since the classification of lymphoid neoplasms is largely based on immunophenotyping to determine the cell lineage. We report three cases of DLBCL with CD3 and other T cell-associated antigens. A literature search identifies 30 additional cases of DLBCL expressing CD3, with the majority (78.6 %) displaying cytoplasmic expression, while two of our cases demonstrate membranous staining. Additionally, expression of CD3 tends to be partial and weak in both our series and the reported cases. Of the 28 cases reported in the literature that were tested for Epstein Barr Virus (EBV), 16 (57.1 %) are positive, suggesting an important role of EBV in promoting lineage ambiguity/infidelity, whereas, all three cases in our series are negative for the virus. All three cases in our series show homogeneous expression of multiple B cell specific antigens, while the reported cases show variable expression with some having B cell antigens downregulated, particularly in those cases with EBV association or anaplastic morphology. A low threshold for testing EBV status is advocated in DLBCL with phenotypic ambiguity along with panels of immunohistochemical stains and B/T cell receptor gene rearrangement analysis.

A Proof-of-Concept Case Study for Personalized Noninvasive Prenatal Diagnosis: Can We Put It to Work?

This commentary highlights the article by van den Oever et al that describes a new method of prenatal diagnosis of single-mutation disorders.

Acquisition of CD30 and CD15 accompanied with simultaneous loss of all pan-T-cell antigens in a case of histological transformation of mycosis fungoides with involvement of regional lymph node: an immunophenotypic alteration resembling classical Hodgkin lymphoma.

: Acquired expression of CD30 is frequently noted in histological transformation of mycosis fungoides (MF), but simultaneous gain of CD15 accompanied with loss of pan-T-cell antigens are extremely rare. We report an unusual case of transformed MF with such an immunophenotypic alteration resembling classical Hodgkin lymphoma. The patient was an 81-year-old male with MF, who was initially treated with topical steroids and phototherapy. Despite the initial response, the patient developed a tumor-like skin lesion that was confirmed to be CD30-positive large T-cell lymphoma and was subsequently found to have a regional lymph node involvement by pleomorphic large cell lymphoma. Besides CD30, pleomorphic large cells were positive for CD15 but negative for all B cell- and T cell-specific antigens. Epstein-Barr virus was negative. Polymerase chain reaction-based assays demonstrated a clonal rearrangement of T-cell receptor gamma gene but detected no B-cell clone. The mechanism and clinical significance of this phenotypic conversion remains to be elucidated.

T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia in a 63-year-old female with a pre-existing T-cell large granular lymphocytic leukemia: metachronous T-cell leukemias with discordant subset restrictions (CD4 versus CD8) and distinct clonal identities.

A 55-year-old female with T-cell large granular lymphocytic leukemia (T-LGL) (CD8+) was initially treated with anti-thymocyte globulin and then cyclosporine due to anemia/neutropenia. While the severity of cytopenia varied with the therapy, the T-LGL persisted. Eight years after the initial diagnosis, she developed lymphadenopathy and hepatosplenomegaly. A complete blood cell count revealed leukocytosis, anemia and thrombocytopenia with ∼ 80% lymphocytes. In contrast to the LGL cells, the blood lymphocytes at this time were medium-large in size and had oval/irregular nuclei, condensed chromatin, indistinct nucleoli and a moderate amount of basophilic cytoplasm, many with elongated vacuoles, and some with cytoplasmic projections. The abnormal lymphocytes comprised ∼ 30% of the bone marrow cellularity with interstitial infiltrates/aggregates. Immunophenotypic analyses demonstrated a T-cell neoplasm with features suggestive of T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia (T-PLL) (CD4+). Cytogenetic analysis revealed a novel clone with complex abnormalities. PCR-based TRG gene rearrangement studies detected a clonal amplicon distinct from that of the preexisting T-LGL. Because of the chronological sequence of the two T-cell neoplasms, this case was initially considered an aggressive transformation of T-LGL. However, this was ultimately excluded by a discordant CD4-subset restriction and the presence of a distinct clonal identity. While these two T-cell neoplasms may have intrinsic connections, the underlying pathogenesis remains to be investigated.

Metachronous/concomitant B-cell neoplasms with discordant light-chain or heavy-chain isotype restrictions: evidence of distinct B-cell neoplasms rather than clonal evolutions.

Metachronous/concomitant B-cell neoplasms with distinct morphology are usually considered clonally related. We retrospectively analyzed 4 cases of metachronous/concomitant B-cell neoplasms with discordant light-chain/heavy-chain restrictions. The primary diagnoses included chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL; n = 2), lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma (n = 1), and pediatric follicular lymphoma (FL; n = 1). The respective secondary diagnoses included diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL; n = 2), plasmablastic myeloma, and pediatric FL. The secondary B-cell neoplasm occurred after the primary diagnosis in 3 cases, with the median interval of 120 months (range, 21-216), whereas the remaining 1 case had the 2 neoplasms (CLL/DLBCL) diagnosed concurrently. Histology suggested aggressive transformation in 3 cases and recurrence in 1 case (FL). Nonetheless, 3 cases showed discordant light-chain restrictions between the 2 B-cell neoplasms, whereas in the remaining case (lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma/plasmablastic myeloma), the 2 neoplasms shared κ light-chain restriction but expressed different heavy-chain isotypes (IgM versus IgA). The 2 CLL/DLBCL cases had polymerase chain reaction-based IGH/K gene rearrangement study and amplicon sequence analysis performed, which demonstrated distinct clonal amplicons between the 2 B-cell neoplasms in each case. Concomitant/metachronous B-cell neoplasms may be clonally unrelated, which can be confirmed by immunoglobulin isotype analysis and/or genotypic studies. We advocate analysis of clonal identities in large cell transformation or recurrent disease compared with primary indolent B-cell neoplasm because of a potential difference in prognosis between clonally related and unrelated secondary B-cell neoplasms.

Composite lymphoid neoplasm of B-cell and T-cell origins: a pathologic study of 14 cases.

We retrospectively analyzed 14 composite lymphoma/lymphoid neoplasms (CL) of B-cell/T-cell origins. These consisted of a spectrum of T-cell neoplasms in combination with different B-cell lymphomas/leukemias, with peripheral T-cell lymphoma and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma encountered most frequently for each respective neoplastic lineage. Histopathologic evaluation demonstrated 6 patterns of neoplastic distribution, including zone, inverted zone, diffuse mixed, regional/nodular mixed, compartmental, and segmental distributions. Four of 9 cases studied were positive for Epstein-Barr virus, all with a mixed pattern, suggesting that this pattern may predict an Epstein-Barr virus association. None of 14 cases was considered CL at the initial histologic evaluation. Only 6 (46.2%) of 13 cases had coexisting B-cell/T-cell neoplasms highlighted by immunohistochemistry, and the other 7 (53.8%) cases had 1 or both of the neoplastic components hidden. Flow cytometry detected both neoplastic lineages in 4 (44%) but failed to detect a clonal B-cell population in 4 (44%) and missed neoplastic T cells in 1 (11.1%) of 9 cases. Molecular testing detected clonal rearrangement of IGH/K gene in 11 (84.6%) of 13 cases, and clonal rearrangement of the TCRG/B gene in 13 (92.9%) of 14 cases, including 8 with identical amplicons detected in separate samples. CLs of B-cell/T-cell origin are heterogeneous in subtype combination and topographic pattern, often with one of the components histologically occult. A multidisciplinary approach is emphasized to establish a definitive diagnosis in these challenging cases.

Inherited lipemic splenomegaly and the spectrum of apolipoprotein E p.Leu167del mutation phenotypic variation.

OBJECTIVE: We review disorders associated with splenomegaly and dyslipidemia with an emphasis on the APOE p.Leu167del mutation. Recent studies suggest that this rare mutation may present more often without splenomegaly in patients with familial combined hyperlipidemia or autosomal dominant hypercholesterolemia. We supplement the literature review by reporting a new kindred. METHODS: We reviewed our 3405-patient lipid clinic database to identify persons with dyslipidemia and splenomegaly. Identified patients were evaluated for relevant disorders, including genetic testing for a 3-base pair deletion in APOE that causes deletion of leucine at position 167 of apolipoprotein E. RESULTS: We identified 4 patients with splenomegaly and dyslipidemia, one of whom had a heterozygous APOE p.Leu167del mutation. This proband is a 76-year-old man with a history of splenomegaly first noted at age 13 and subsequent diagnosis of hypertriglyceridemia, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia in his third decade. He never required splenectomy, and his splenic enlargement regressed over time with medical management of his hypertriglyceridemia. The APOE p.Leu167del mutation was also found in the proband's son and granddaughter, neither of whom has splenomegaly or marked dyslipidemia. CONCLUSION: Splenomegaly in association with dyslipidemia may indicate the presence of an underlying disorder. We discuss possible causes, review the literature relating to the rare APOE p.Leu167del mutation, and present a 3-generation kindred with variable phenotypic expression of this mutation. Severity of expression may depend on genotype, sex, or effective medical management of dyslipidemia or a combination of these factors. Aggressive lipid treatment may improve or prevent splenomegaly among patients with this disorder.

Composite lymphoma of mycosis fungoides and cutaneous small B-cell lymphoma in a 73-year-old male patient.

Composite lymphoma of T-cell and B-cell type is uncommon, and the one occurring primarily on skin is extremely rare. Herein, we report a unique case of composite lymphoma of mycosis fungoides and cutaneous small B-cell lymphoma in a 73-year-old male patient. The patient presented with multiple erythematous patches, plaques, and nodules on the upper arms, scalp, and trunk. Four punch biopsies of arm and scalp lesions demonstrated lymphoid infiltrate in superficial to deep dermis with a characteristic zone distribution of T-cell and B-cell components. T cells were distributed in papillary and perifollicular dermis and displayed a larger size with convoluted nuclei, whereas B cells were small sized, assuming nodular infiltrate in mid-deep dermis with coexpression of CD5. Molecular test detected clonal rearrangement of both TCRG and IGH/K genes with identical amplicons for each gene in all 4 biopsies. Clinical staging revealed no extracutaneous lesions. A multidisplinary approach is emphasized to establish a definitive diagnosis.

A malignant lymphoma with histological features and immunophenotypic profile intermediate between EBV-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and EBV-positive classical Hodgkin lymphoma in a 67-year-old female: a "gray zone" lymphoma associated with Epstein-Barr virus in the elderly.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) can be associated with both classical Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma of the B-cell type, particularly in immunodeficient patients or elderly individuals. While polymorphic variants of EBV-positive large B-cell lymphoma (EBV+ DLBCL) frequently resemble cHL in morphology, and thereby may cause diagnostic difficulty, a true gray zone lymphoma with overlapping morphological and immunophenotypical features of EBV+ DLBCL and EBV+ cHL has not been reported in the literature. We describe a unique case of an EBV+ malignant lymphoma of B-cell origin with hybrid features of EBV+ DLBCL and EBV+ cHL in a 67-year-old female without an identifiable etiology for immunodeficiency. The biopsy of an enlarged lymph node showed a polymorphic infiltrate containing Reed-Sternberg-like pleomorphic large cells, which were positive for CD30 and CD15. Although CD20 was negative and PAX5 and CD45 were down-regulated, the pleomorphic large cells expressed multiple other B-cell antigens which are characteristically absent in cHL. EBV-encoded RNA hybridization (EBER) studies demonstrated nuclear reactivity in the large cells as well as in the smaller bystander cells. A clonal rearrangement of the immunoglobulin heavy chain gene was also detected by PCR. Although the results of the EBV and genotypic studies suggest this case may be an example of EBV+ DLBCL of the elderly instead of EBV+ cHL, the immunophenotype is strikingly ambiguous. Thus, this case may represent an interface between EBV+ DLBCL and EBV+ cHL.

Molecular detection of circulating Sezary cells in patients with mycosis fungoides: could it predict future development of secondary Sezary syndrome? A single-institution experience.

While the majority of patients with early-stage mycosis fungoides (MF) have an excellent prognosis, a few cases progress to secondary Sezary syndrome (sSS), which carries a dismal clinical outcome. We retrospectively analyzed 135 cases of MF/SS and correlated molecular detection of T-cell clones in the skin and blood with other clinicopathologic findings. When stratified by the diagnoses, patients with MF demonstrated a 26.5% (31/117) positive rate for a blood T-cell clone, of which 50% (10/20) had an identical T-cell clone in the skin. Follow-up evaluation showed conversion into sSS or leukemic phase in 50% (5/10) of cases with a positive blood T-cell clone (estimated mean interval 41.8 months) in comparison to no cases in the group without a clone (0/31). Interestingly, 4/5 cases of sSS had an identical T-cell clone in the skin, while the remaining case did not have the test performed on skin for clonal comparison. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis demonstrated a poor clinical outcome in the group with a blood T-cell clone, in comparison with the group without, in overall survival (p < 0.0001) and progression-free survival (p < 0.0001; HR = 22.6). These findings suggest that molecular detection of a blood T-cell clone may have a role in predicting sSS. Due to amplification of non-neoplastic T-cell expansion in a significant number of cases, comparison of blood T-cell clones with skin may have confirmatory value.

Primary cutaneous, composite, Epstein-Barr virus-associated, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and peripheral T-cell lymphoma.

T-cell lymphomas have a broad spectrum of cutaneous involvement. Several subtypes of T-cell lymphomas are associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-driven lymphoproliferative processes. We present a case of a composite, primary, cutaneous, EBV-associated, diffuse, large B-cell lymphoma and mature T-cell lymphoma occurring in a patient with Klinefelter karyotype (47, XXY). The patient had a characteristic clinical course of a systemic mature T-cell lymphoma before the presentation of the composite, primary, EBV-associated, diffuse, large B-cell lymphoma. Although similar cases have been described in extracutaneous locations, we believe that this is the first description with a primary cutaneous presentation.

Donor cell-derived leukemias/myelodysplastic neoplasms in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: a clinicopathologic study of 10 cases and a comprehensive review of the literature.

We report 10 cases of donor cell leukemia (DCL). All cases except the case of chronic lymphocytic leukemia had anemia, neutropenia, and/or thrombocytopenia when DCL was diagnosed. Eight cases with sex-mismatched hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HCT) showed donor gonosomal complements, suggesting DCL. Clonal cytogenetic abnormalities were detected in 8 cases: 6 were monosomy 7/del(7q). In all 10 cases, engraftment studies confirmed donor cell origin. Retrospective fluorescence in situ hybridization in archived donor cells in 4 cases showed a low level of abnormalities in 2. Of 7 patients with clinical follow-up of 5 months or more, 1 (with acute myeloid leukemia) died of disease; 6 are alive, including 1 with myelodysplastic syndrome with spontaneous remission. Similar to reported cases, we found disproportional sex-mismatched HCTs, suggesting probable underdetection of DCL in sex-matched HCTs. The latency between HCT and DCL ranged from 1 to 193 months (median, 24 months), in keeping with the literature. Analyzing our cases, pooled with reported cases, with survival models showed much shorter latency for malignancy as primary disease, for T-cell large granular lymphocyte leukemia as type of DCL, and for umbilical cord blood as stem cell source.

Sequential development of histiocytic sarcoma and diffuse large b-cell lymphoma in a patient with a remote history of follicular lymphoma with genotypic evidence of a clonal relationship: a divergent (bilineal) neoplastic transformation of an indolent B-cell lymphoma in a single individual.

Follicular lymphoma (FL) often transforms to diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) during its protracted clinical course. Rarely, histiocytic sarcoma (HS) occurs secondary to or concurrent with FL, although the biological relationship between these 2 morphologically and immunophenotypically distinct entities in the same individual has not been well characterized. We report a unique case showing the sequential occurrence of first, HS and then DLBCL in a patient with a remote history of FL. In this case, HS developed 17 years after the diagnosis of FL and was shown to partly retain the immunophenotypic features characteristic of FL, while showing the morphologic and immunophenotypic profiles diagnostic of HS. DLBCL occurred 18.5 years after FL. Both HS and DLBCL harbored the IGH/BCL2 fusion gene, a hallmark of FL, per interphase fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis. Immunoglobulin gene rearrangement studies showed a clonal rearrangement of the IGH gene in both HS and DLBCL with identical amplicons, suggesting a shared origin of the neoplastic clones. These data support the hypothesis of transdifferentiation or transevolution in a mature B-cell neoplasm, and, in addition, suggest the possibility of a divergent (bilineal) neoplastic transformation of FL in a single individual.