Characteristics of viral pneumonia in the COVID-19 era: an update.

Influenza virus, rhinovirus, and adenovirus frequently cause viral pneumonia, an important cause of morbidity and mortality especially in the extreme ages of life. During the last two decades, three outbreaks of coronavirus-associated pneumonia, namely Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, Middle-East Respiratory Syndrome, and the ongoing Coronavirus Infectious Disease-2019 (COVID-19) were reported. The rate of diagnosis of viral pneumonia is increasingly approaching 60% among children identified as having community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Clinical presentation ranges from mild to severe pneumonitis complicated by respiratory failure in severe cases. The most vulnerable patients, the elderly and those living with cancer, report a relevant mortality rate. No clinical characteristics can be useful to conclusively distinguish the different etiology of viral pneumonia. However, accessory symptoms, such as anosmia or ageusia together with respiratory symptoms suggest COVID-19. An etiologic-based treatment of viral pneumonia is possible in a small percentage of cases only. Neuraminidase inhibitors have been proven to reduce the need for ventilatory support and mortality rate while only a few data support the large-scale use of other antivirals. A low-middle dose of dexamethasone and heparin seems to be effective in COVID-19 patients, but data regarding their possible efficacy in viral pneumonia caused by other viruses are conflicting. In conclusion, viral pneumonia is a relevant cause of CAP, whose interest is increasing due to the current COVID-19 outbreak. To set up a therapeutic approach is difficult because of the low number of active molecules and the conflicting data bearing supportive treatments such as steroids.

Prenatal lens development in connexin43 and connexin50 double knockout mice.

PURPOSE: To determine the roles of intercellular communication in embryonic eye growth and development, mice with a targeted deletion of the Cx43 gene were examined, and mice without both Cx43 and Cx50 were generated and analyzed. METHODS: Embryonic eyes and lenses from wild-type mice, or mice deficient in Cx43, Cx50, or both Cx43 and Cx50 were collected and analyzed structurally by light and electron microscopy, immunohistochemically using connexin-specific antibodies, biochemically by Western blot analysis, and physiologically by measuring patterns of junctional communication revealed by iontophoretic injection of junction-permeable reporter molecules. RESULTS: Cx50 expression was limited to the ocular lens and was not detected in either the cornea or the retina. Cx43(-/-) embryos showed development of structurally normal lenses and eyes when examined by light and electron microscopy through embryonic day (E)18.5. In addition, Cx43(-/-) lenses synthesized four different markers of lens differentiation: MIP26, alphaA-crystallin, alphaB-crystallin, and gamma-crystallin. Double-knockout lenses were also histologically normal through E18.5 and synthesized the four lens differentiation markers. When assayed by intracellular injection with Lucifer yellow (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR) and neurobiotin at E15.5, Cx43(-/-)/Cx50(-/-) lenses retained gap junction-mediated dye transfer between fiber cells. In contrast, dye transfer in double-knockout lenses was dramatically reduced between epithelial cells and was eliminated between epithelial cells and fibers. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that the unique functional properties of both Cx43 and Cx50 are not required for prenatal lens development and that connexin diversity is required for regulation of postnatal growth and homeostasis.

Synchronous activity of inhibitory networks in neocortex requires electrical synapses containing connexin36.

Inhibitory interneurons often generate synchronous activity as an emergent property of their interconnections. To determine the role of electrical synapses in such activity, we constructed mice expressing histochemical reporters in place of the gap junction protein Cx36. Localization of the reporter with somatostatin and parvalbumin suggested that Cx36 was expressed largely by interneurons. Electrical synapses were common among cortical interneurons in controls but were nearly absent in knockouts. A metabotropic glutamate receptor agonist excited LTS interneurons, generating rhythmic inhibitory potentials in surrounding neurons of both wild-type and knockout animals. However, the synchrony of these rhythms was weaker and more spatially restricted in the knockout. We conclude that electrical synapses containing Cx36 are critical for the generation of widespread, synchronous inhibitory activity.

Connexin40-deficient mice exhibit atrioventricular nodal and infra-Hisian conduction abnormalities.

INTRODUCTION: Previous electrophysiologic investigations have described AV conduction disturbances in connexin40 (Cx40)-deficient mice. Because expression of Cx40 occurs predominantly in the atria and His-Purkinje system of the mouse heart, the AV conduction disturbances were thought to be secondary to disruption in His-Purkinje function. However, the lack of a His-bundle electrogram recording in the mouse has limited further investigation of the importance of Cx40. Using a novel technique to record His-bundle recordings in Cx40-deficient mice, we define the physiologic importance of deficiencies in Cx40. METHODS AND RESULTS: Ten Cx40-/- mice and 11 Cx40+/+ controls underwent a blinded, in vivo, closed chest electrophysiology study at 9 to 12 weeks of age. In the Cx40-/- mice, the PR interval was significantly longer compared with Cx40+/+ mice (44.6+/-6.4 msec vs 36.0+/-4.1 msec, P = 0.002). Not only the HV interval (14.0+/-3.0 msec vs 10.4+/-1.2 msec, P = 0.003) but also the AH interval (33.2+/-4.8 msec vs 27.1+/-3.7 msec, P = 0.006), AV Wenckebach cycle lengths, and AV nodal effective and functional refractory periods were prolonged in Cx40-/- compared with Cx40+/+ mice. CONCLUSION: Cx40-deficient mice exhibit significant delay not only in infra-Hisian conduction, as would be expected from the expression of Cx40 in the His-Purkinje system but also in the electrophysiologic parameters that reflect AV nodal conduction. Our data suggest a significant role of Cx40 in atrionodal conduction and/or in proximal His-bundle conduction.

Oocyte-granulosa cell heterologous gap junctions are required for the coordination of nuclear and cytoplasmic meiotic competence.

Homologous gap junctions are generally recognized as a means of coordinating cellular behavior under developmental and homeostatic conditions. In the mammalian ovary, heterologous gap junctions between the oocyte and the granulosa cells have been widely implicated in the regulation of meiotic maturation late in oogenesis. However, the role of oocyte-granulosa cell gap junctions at earlier stages of oogenesis is poorly understood. Stage-specific defects in both oocyte and follicle development have been identified in juvenile mice deficient in heterologous oocyte-granulosa cell gap junctions due to targeted deletion of Gja4, the gene encoding connexin-37. Follicle development arrests at the type 4 preantral stage and although oocytes commence growth, oocyte growth ceases at a diameter of 52 microm (74.3% of control size). Analysis of cell cycle and cytoskeletal markers indicates that oocytes arrest in a G(2) state based on uniform decondensed GV chromatin, interphase microtubule arrays, and nonphosphorylated cytoplasmic centrosomes. Functional assays of meiotic competence confirm that oocytes from connexin-37-deficient mice are unable to enter M phase (initiate meiotic maturation) unless treated with the phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid (OA). Unlike growing oocytes from heterozygous control animals, OA-treated oocytes from connexin-37-deficient mice respond acutely and progress rapidly to the circular bivalent stage of meiosis I and upon removal from OA rapidly revert to an interphase state. In contrast, OA-treated control incompetent oocytes are slow to respond, exhibit a lower proportion of chromosomal bivalent stage oocytes, but remain in and progress into meiotic M phase upon removal from OA. This study demonstrates that heterologous gap-junctional communication is required for the completion of oocyte growth and the acquisition of cytoplasmic meiotic competence.

Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in discontinuous transverse urea-gradient gels.

Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in transverse urea-gradient gels is widely used for the study of changes in conformation and quaternary structure of proteins induced by increasing concentrations of urea. However, possible uncertainties regarding the effective concentration of urea at any given point across the gel must be considered when this technique is used for quantitative purposes. We describe here a simple, practical procedure for preparing urea-gradient gels discontinuously, by stacking various layers of acrylamide solution with increasing urea concentrations. We show that the urea concentration in different lanes of discontinuous gradient gels prepared in this way can be predetermined accurately enough for quantitative purposes and provide as an example the study of the dissociation of thyroglobulin in urea. Various levels of resolution can be attained by this technique. The use of discontinuous gradient gels may extend the usefulness of urea gel electrophoresis in relation with the quantitative aspects of the study of protein conformation.

Antibody response of the mouse reservoir of Borrelia burgdorferi in nature.

To determine whether the white-footed mouse reservoir host (Peromyscus leucopus) of the agent of Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) naturally mounts an immune response against the full range of antigens expressed by this zoonotic pathogen, we analyzed the pattern of immunoreactivity of these rodents at sites in which the intensity of transmission differs. Although the incidence of seroconversion within the reservoir population relates proportionally to the density of subadult deer ticks (Ixodes dammini), seroprevalence appears constant. About a fifth as many juvenile mice recognize spirachete antigens as do adult mice. Virtually all reservoir mice in nature recognize the p20, p35.5, p39, and p58 antigens, regardless of the intensity of transmission. Seropositive mice retain reactivity to a wide range of spirochetal antigens. Few mice recognize flagellin, OspB, and OspC. Although a third of serum samples include reactivity to a 31-kDa band, this reaction is irregular and may represent an uncharacterized antigen that comigrates with OspA. Mice captured where transmission is intense recognize the same spectrum of antigens as do mice captured where vector ticks are scarce.

Lymphoproliferative disorder and imbalanced T-helper response in C/EBP beta-deficient mice.

C/EBP beta is considered a key element of interleukin-6 (IL-6) signalling as well as an important transcriptional regulator of the IL-6 gene itself. We describe here how mice lacking C/EBP beta develop a pathology similar to mice overexpressing IL-6 and nearly identical to multicentric Castleman's disease in human patients, with marked splenomegaly, peripheral lymphadenopathy and enhanced haemopoiesis. Humoral, innate and cellular immunity are also profoundly distorted, as shown by the defective activation of splenic macrophages, the strong impairement of IL-12 production, the increased susceptibility to Candida albicans infection and the altered T-helper function. Our data show that C/EBP beta is crucial for the correct functional regulation and homeostatic control of haemopoietic and lymphoid compartments.

Defective inflammatory response in interleukin 6-deficient mice.

Systemic and localized inflammation elicit a number of host responses which include fever, cachexia, hypoglycemia, and major changes in the concentration of liver plasma proteins. Interleukin 6 (IL-6) is considered an important mediator of the inflammatory response, together with IL-1 and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha). The purpose of this study was to unequivocally determine the role of IL-6 in these phenomena making use of IL-6-deficient mice that we have recently generated by gene targeting. We report here that in the absence of IL-6, mice are unable to mount a normal inflammatory response to localized tissue damage generated by turpentine injection. The induction of acute phase proteins is dramatically reduced, mice do not lose body weight and only suffer from mild anorexia and hypoglycemia. In contrast, when systemic inflammation is elicited through the injection of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), these parameters are altered to the same extent both in wild-type and IL-6-deficient mice, demonstrating that under these conditions IL-6 function is dispensable. Moreover, we show that LPS-treated IL-6-deficient mice produce three times more TNF-alpha than wild-type controls, suggesting that increased TNF-alpha production might be one of the compensatory mechanisms through which a normal response to LPS is achieved in the absence of IL-6. We also show that corticosterone is normally induced in IL-6-deficient mice, demonstrating that IL-6 is not required for the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Our results reinforce the idea that different patterns of cytokines are involved in systemic and localized tissue damage, and identify IL-6 as an essential mediator of the inflammatory response to localized inflammation.

Heterogeneity of microtubule organizing center components as revealed by monoclonal antibodies to mammalian centrosomes and to nucleus-associated bodies from dictyostelium.

The molecular composition of two morphologically distinct microtubule-organizing centers (MTOCs) was compared by probing with monoclonal antibodies raised against (i) nucleus-associated bodies (NABs) isolated in a complex with nuclei from the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum and (ii) mammalian mitotic spindles isolated from Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. The staining patterns observed by immunofluorescence microscopy in whole CHO cells and Dictyostelium amoebae showed that the distribution of thirteen MTOC antigens is heterogeneous. Not all antibodies recognized the MTOC in both interphase and mitosis. Most of the anti-MTOC antibodies cross-reacted with other cellular organelles such as nuclei, Golgi apparatus-like aggregates and cytoskeletal elements. Two antibodies, CHO3 and AX3, recognized phosphorylated epitopes present in both mammalian centrosomes and Dictyostelium NABs. On immunoblots, most of the antibodies showed multiple bands, often of high molecular weight, indicating that the antigenic determinants are shared among different molecules. One antibody inhibited the regrowth of microtubules onto centrosomes in vitro after addition of exogenous tubulin to detergent-lysed CHO cells on coverslips; this antibody binds to an antigen(s) that might be essential for the microtubule-nucleating activity of centrosomes. These observations demonstrate that molecular components in different MTOCs exhibit a variety of distinct subcellular localizations and functional properties, and that some antigenic molecules have been conserved among morphologically distinct MTOCs.

A monoclonal antibody to a mitotic microtubule-associated protein blocks mitotic progression.

A monoclonal antibody raised against mitotic spindles isolated from CHO cells ([CHO1], Sellitto, C., and R. Kuriyama. 1988. J. Cell Biol. 106:431-439) identifies an epitope that resides on polypeptides of 95 and 105 kD and is localized in the spindles of diverse organisms. The antigen is distributed throughout the spindle at metaphase but becomes concentrated in a progressively narrower zone on either side of the spindle midplane as anaphase progresses. Microinjection of CHO1, either as an ascites fluid or as purified IgM, results in mitotic inhibition in a stage-specific and dose-dependent manner. Parallel control injections with nonimmune IgMs do not yield significant mitotic inhibition. Immunofluorescence analysis of injected cells reveals that those which complete mitosis display normal localization of CHO1, whereas arrested cells show no specific localization of the CHO1 antigen within the spindle. Immunoelectron microscopic images of such arrested cells indicate aberrant microtubule organization. The CHO1 antigen in HeLa cell extracts copurifies with taxol-stabilized microtubules. Neither of the polypeptides bearing the antigen is extracted from microtubules by ATP or GTP, but both are approximately 60% extracted with 0.5 M NaCl. Sucrose gradient analysis reveals that the antigens sediment at approximately 11S. The CHO 1 antigen appears to be a novel mitotic MAP whose proper distribution within the spindle is required for mitosis. The properties of the antigen(s) suggest that the corresponding protein(s) are part of the mechanism that holds the antiparallel microtubules of the two interdigitating half spindles together during anaphase.

Co-localization of glutamate and tubulin in putative excitatory neurons of the hippocampus and amygdala: an immunohistochemical study using monoclonal antibodies.

Tubulin and glutamate were immunohistochemically localized in the hippocampus and amygdala of rats using monoclonal antibodies to gamma-Glu-Glu (Glu-1) and glutaraldehyde-fixed glutamate (Glu-2), respectively. Glu-2 was shown to be selectively immunoreactive for glutaraldehyde-fixed Glu using enzyme-linked immunoassays and inhibition enzyme-linked immunoassays. Glu-1 was immunoreactive with tubulin on immunoblots of brain homogenates. However, only tubulin with a glutamate carboxy-terminal appeared to be immunoreactive with Glu-1 since tubulin from Chinese hamster ovary cells was not immunoreactive on immunoblots unless the tubulin was first treated with carboxypeptidase. Intense immunocytochemical staining by Glu-1 of hippocampus and amygdala was co-localized in the same neurons as the immunocytochemical staining for glutaraldehyde-fixed Glu produced by Glu-2. The distribution of immunostaining in the brain by Glu-1 was very similar to the distribution of immunostaining produced by Glu-2. The major difference was that glutamate-like immunoreactivity, visualized by Glu-2 staining, was intense in the nuclei of neurons, while nuclei were unstained by Glu-1. The distribution of immunostaining by these monoclonal antibodies was very similar to that reported in previous studies using other antibodies to Glu. All granule cells in the area dentata of the hippocampus exhibited intense immunoreactivity with both antibodies. Immunoreactivity was also observed in the stratum lucidum of CA3, the zone of termination of mossy fiber axons of granule cells. The majority of pyramidal cells in CA1, and many pyramidal cells in CA3 of the hippocampus were immunoreactive. In addition, it appeared that all of the pyramidal cells in the subiculum exhibited immunoreactivity. Light, diffuse immunoreactivity was observed in the neuropil of the hippocampus and subiculum. Most perikarya in the amygdala were characterized by light to moderate Glu-1 immunoreactivity and moderate to intense Glu-2 immunoreactivity. Fairly intense Glu-1 and Glu-2 immunoreactivity was seen in some neurons of the lateral nucleus, basolateral nucleus, lateral subdivision of the central nucleus, and the periamygdaloid cortex. The morphology of immunostained neurons in the lateral and basolateral nuclei indicates that the majority of these cells correspond to the pyramidal class 1 neurons described in previous Golgi studies.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Interleukin-2 and increased natural killer activity in mice experimentally infected with Aspergillus niger.

The authors studied the production and effect of interleukin 2 obtained from T lymphocytes stimulated with Aspergillus niger on populations of LGL cells from the peripheral blood and spleen of infected and non-infected mice. The results show an increase in IL-2 production by T lymphocytes in the spleen. In addition, the data demonstrate an increase in LGL activity in the blood and spleen of infected mice. This was seen as the percentage of growth inhibition towards Aspergillus niger, around the tenth day of infection, and reached a maximum of activity on the fifteenth day. The NK activity of the LGL studied increases both in infected and non-infected mice when IL-2 from T lymphocytes of infected mouse blood and spleen is present.

Distribution of a matrix component of the midbody during the cell cycle in Chinese hamster ovary cells.

Monoclonal antibodies were raised against isolated spindles of CHO (Chinese hamster ovary) cells to probe for molecular components specific to the mitotic apparatus. One of the antibodies, CHO1, recognized an antigen localized to the midbody during mitosis. Immunofluorescence staining of metaphase cells showed that although the total spindle area was labeled faintly, the antigen corresponding to CHO1 was preferentially localized in the equatorial region of the spindle. With the progression of mitosis, the antigen was further organized into discrete short lines along the spindle axis, and eventually condensed into a bright fluorescent dot at the midzone of the intercellular bridge between two daughter cells. Parallel immunostaining of tubulin showed that the CHO1-stained area corresponded to the dark region where microtubules are entrapped by the amorphous dense matrix components and possibly blocked from binding to tubulin antibody. Immunoblot analysis indicated that CHO1 recognized two polypeptides of mol wt 95,000 and 105,000. The immunoreaction was always stronger in preparations of isolated midbodies than in mitotic spindle fractions. The protein doublet was retained in the particulate matrix fraction after Sarkosyl extraction (Mullins, J. M., and J. R. McIntosh. 1982. J. Cell Biol. 94:654-661), suggesting that CHO1 antigen is indeed a component of the dense matrix. In addition to the equatorial region of spindles and midbodies, CHO1 also stained interphase centrosomes, and nuclei in a speckled pattern that was cell cycle-dependent. Thus, the midbody appears to share either common molecular component(s) or a similar epitope with interphase centrosomes and nuclei.

Distribution of pericentriolar material in multipolar spindles induced by colcemid treatment in Chinese hamster ovary cells.

Mitotic Chinese hamster ovary cells were obtained by treatment with microtubule drugs under various conditions, and the shape of spindles was analysed by phase-contrast microscopy of isolated spindles, and by indirect immunofluorescence staining of whole mitotic cells with anti-tubulin antibody. Bipolarity of spindles was maintained after treatment with 0.05 microM of colcemid for 3.5 h, but increased exposure to higher concentrations (0.32 microM) and for longer durations (5.5 h) led to a marked rise in multipolar spindles. Nocodazole treatment, on the other hand, failed to show a multiplicity of spindle poles even at 3.3 microM. Each pole of a multipolar spindle was associated with pericentriolar material, as shown by staining with an autoimmune serum specific for pericentriolar material. The number of locations with free pericentriolar material capable of polymerizing microtubules in vitro also increased with increasing numbers of spindle poles, suggesting that dispersion of the pericentriolar material resulted in the production of many microtubule-nucleating sites in multipolar spindles. The different efficiencies of recovery from different drugs, which have been known to be quite variable, may be partly due to the different extent of dispersion of the pericentriolar material.

Heterogeneity of microtubules recognized by monoclonal antibodies to alpha-tubulin.

A set of four monoclonal antibodies against tubulin (TU-01, TU-02, TU-03, and TU-04) were produced using pig brain microtubule protein as antigen. Their characterization shows that all recognize antigenic determinants located on the tubulin alpha-subunit. However, peptide mapping of isolated alpha-tubulin, followed by immunoblotting with the monoclonal antibodies, shows that the antigenic determinants are located on different peptide fragments in at least three cases. The immunoreactivity with tubulins from different cells and tissues, ranging from eukaryotic microorganisms to man, was studied by immunoblotting and immunofluorescence. The antigenic determinants recognized by the antibodies are not uniformly distributed but, in some instances, are absent from tubulins of lower eukaryotic cells. These antibodies also make it possible to distinguish between different sets of microtubules within individual cells. Antigenically different microtubules are particularly evident in mouse spermatozoa and in some protozoa (T. vaginalis, H. muscarum, L. tropica, N. gruberi) possessing different sets of microtubules with different functions. These monoclonal antibodies can clearly identify the heterogeneity of tubulin or microtubules both from different organisms and within the same cell.

[Cutaneous lipid excretion]. / Escrezione lipidica cutanea.

In this research we have studied the lipids excretion of skin by comparison of three groups of subjects at first age, young age and old people. We evidence the amount of the lipidic fractions and the differences between the ages in the lipids of skin and their components. We have also underlined the great significance of the skin as an important factor in the homeostasis.

[Variations in plasma protein components during extracorporeal circulation]. / Variazioni delle componenti proteiche plasmatiche durante circolazione extracorporea.

In this research we have determined the behaviour of proteic plasmatic pattern and some enzymes during extracorporeal circulation and we noted a constant increase of albumin and of the ratio Alb/Glob. We observed also variations of some enzymes. Our opinion according other AA. is that this changes are determined principally by the large dose of heparin necessary during the C.E.C.