Enhancing Endothelial Function with Nutrient-Enriched Table Hen Eggs: A Randomized Study in Patients Recovering from Acute Coronary Syndrome.

Purpose: This study investigated the effect of consumption of table eggs enriched with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA), lutein, vitamin E and selenium on microvascular function, oxidative stress and inflammatory mediators in patients after acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Patients and Methods: In a prospective, randomized, interventional, double-blind clinical trial, ACS patients were assigned to either the Nutri4 (N=15, mean age: 57.2 ± 9.2 years), or the Control group (N=13; mean age 56.8 ± 9.6 years). The Nutri4 group consumed three enriched hen eggs daily for three weeks, providing approximately 1.785 mg of vitamin E, 0.330 mg of lutein, 0.054 mg of selenium and 438 mg of n-3 PUFAs. Biochemical parameters, including serum lipids, liver enzymes, nutrient concentrations, serum antioxidant enzyme activity (catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD)), and markers of oxidative stress (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and ferric reducing ability (FRAP)), were assessed before and after the dietary interventions. Additionally, arterial blood pressure, heart rate, body composition, fluid status, anthropometric measurements, and skin microvascular blood flow responses to various stimuli (postocclusive reactive hyperemia (PORH), acetylcholine- (Ach ID), and sodium nitroprusside- (SNP ID)) were measured using laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) throughout the study. Results: The intake of Nutri4 eggs led to a significant reduction in LDL cholesterol levels, while the levels of total cholesterol remained within the established reference values. Consuming Nutri4 eggs resulted in a 12.7% increase in serum vitamin E levels, an 8.6% increase in selenium levels, and demonstrated a favorable impact on microvascular reactivity, as evidenced by markedly improved PORH and ACh ID. Nutri4 eggs exerted a significant influence on the activity of GPx and SOD, with no observed changes in TBARS or FRAP values. Conclusion: The consumption of Nutri4 eggs positively influenced microvascular function in individuals with ACS, without eliciting adverse effects on oxidative stress.

Prevalence of familial hypercholesterolemia in patients with acute coronary syndrome.

Aim To investigate the prevalence of familial hypercholesterolemia in patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Methods The study included fifteen patients with first or repeated ACS and treated/nontreated dyslipidaemia admitted to the Department of Cardiovascular Diseases of Clinical Hospital Centre Osijek between 1 January 2020 and 1 January 2021. The cut-off value of low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-C was 4.5mmol/L as a possible cut-off value for familial hypercholesterolemia presence. Data were collected from medical history and during patient's follow-up. Results Included patients that fulfilled criteria were predominantly male - 14 (93%), mean age 61 years. The median level of LDL cholesterol at admission because of ACS was 5.14 mmol/L, whereas the follow-up level after one year was 2.27 mmol/L (p=0.001). At first follow-up, 7 (46%) patients were treated with atorvastatin 80 mg or rosuvastatin 40 mg, 3 (20%) atorvastatin 80mg + ezetimibe 10mg, 2 (13%) with rosuvastatin 40 mg+ ezetimibe 10 mg, other patients were treated with a lower dose of statin or ezetimibe. According to LDL-C profile and by calculating the Dutch Lipid Clinic Network Score, one (of 15) patient was categorized as having definite familial hypercholesterolemia and two (of 15) as having probable familial hypercholesterolemia leading to the use of triple hypolipidemic therapy (statin+ezetimibe+PCSK9 inhibitor) in 2 (13%) patients (one female and one male). Conclusion LDL-C level of 4.5 mmol/L and higher represents an indication for screening for familial hypercholesterolemia in patients with ACS. The prevalence of familial hypercholesterolemia in ACS, estimated by the Dutch Lipid Clinic Network Score, could be higher than previously reported.

Role of galectin-3 in diagnosis and severity assessment of epicardial artery lesions in patients with suspected coronary artery disease.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to investigate the possible role of serum galectin-3 (Gal-3) levels in the diagnosis and assessment of significant epicardial artery lesions in patients with suspected coronary artery disease (CAD). METHODS: This was a single-center cross sectional cohort study including 168 subjects with suspected CAD and indications for coronary angiography divided into three groups: percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) group (N 64), coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG) group (N 57), and group with no coronary stenosis (N 47). Gal-3 levels were measured and the syntax score (Ss) was calculated. RESULTS: The mean value of Gal-3 in the PCI and CABG group was 19.98 ng/ml, while in the control group, it was 9.51 ng/ml (p < 0.001). The highest value of Gal-3 was found in the group of subjects with three-vessel disease (p < 0.001). When subgroups were analyzed by Gal-3 levels (< 17.8 ng/ml low, 18.8-25.9 ng/ml intermediate, > 25 ng/ml high risk) there was a significant difference between at least two Gal-3 groups for the arithmetic mean of Syntax score (p < 0.001). The syntax I's arithmetic mean at low and intermediate-risk Gal-3 levels was significantly lower than at high-risk Gal-3 levels (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Gal-3 could be used as an additional tool for diagnosis and severity assessment of atherosclerotic disease in patients with suspected CAD. Furthermore, it could help identify high-risk subjects in patients with stable CAD.

Right Heart Morphology and Its Association With Excessive and Deficient Cardiac Visceral Adipose Tissue.

Visceral adipose tissue is an independent risk factor for the development of atherosclerotic coronary disease, arterial hypertension, diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Right heart morphology often involves the presence of adipose tissue, which can be quantified by non-invasive imaging methods. The last decade brought a wealth of new insights into the function and morphology of adipose tissue, with great emphasis on its role in the pathogenesis of heart disease. Cardiac adipose tissue is involved in thermogenesis, mechanical protection of the heart and energy storage. However, it can also be an endocrine organ that synthesises numerous pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, the effect of which is accomplished by paracrine and vasocrine mechanisms. Visceral adipose tissue has several compartments that differ in their embryological origin and vascularisation. Deficiency of cardiac adipose tissue, often due to chronic pathological conditions such as oncological diseases or chronic infectious diseases, predicts increased mortality and morbidity. To date, knowledge about the influence of visceral adipose tissue on cardiac morphology is limited, especially the effect on the morphology of the right heart in a state of excess or deficient visceral adipose tissue.

Effects of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid-Enriched Hen Egg Consumption on the Inflammatory Biomarkers and Microvascular Function in Patients with Acute and Chronic Coronary Syndrome-A Randomized Study.

This study aimed to test the effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)-enriched hen egg consumption on serum lipid and free fatty acid profiles, inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers, and microvascular reactivity in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). Forty CAD patients participated in this study. Of those, 20 patients had acute CAD (Ac-CAD), and 20 patients had chronic CAD (Ch-CAD). The control group (N = 20) consumed three regular hen eggs/daily (249 mg n-3 PUFAs/day), and the n-3 PUFAs group (N = 20) consumed three n-3 PUFA-enriched hen eggs/daily (1053 g n-3 PUFAs/day) for 3 weeks. Serum n-3 PUFA concentration significantly increased (in all CAD patients), while LDL cholesterol and IL-6 (in Ac-CAD patients), and hsCRP and IL-1a (in all CAD patients) significantly decreased in the n-3 PUFAs group. Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity significantly decreased, and forearm skin microvascular reactivity in response to vascular occlusion (postocclusive reactive hyperemia (PORH)) remained unchanged in both the n-3 PUFAs and control groups in total CAD, Ac-CAD, and Ch-CAD patients. Potentially, n-3 PUFA-enriched hen eggs can change the free fatty acid profile to a more favorable lower n6/n3 ratio, and to exhibit mild anti-inflammatory effects but not to affect microvascular reactivity in CAD patients.

Carnosine, Small but Mighty-Prospect of Use as Functional Ingredient for Functional Food Formulation.

Carnosine is a dipeptide synthesized in the body from ß-alanine and L-histidine. It is found in high concentrations in the brain, muscle, and gastrointestinal tissues of humans and is present in all vertebrates. Carnosine has a number of beneficial antioxidant properties. For example, carnosine scavenges reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as alpha-beta unsaturated aldehydes created by peroxidation of fatty acid cell membranes during oxidative stress. Carnosine can oppose glycation, and it can chelate divalent metal ions. Carnosine alleviates diabetic nephropathy by protecting podocyte and mesangial cells, and can slow down aging. Its component, the amino acid beta-alanine, is particularly interesting as a dietary supplement for athletes because it increases muscle carnosine, and improves effectiveness of exercise and stimulation and contraction in muscles. Carnosine is widely used among athletes in the form of supplements, but rarely in the population of cardiovascular or diabetic patients. Much less is known, if any, about its potential use in enriched food. In the present review, we aimed to provide recent knowledge on carnosine properties and distribution, its metabolism (synthesis and degradation), and analytical methods for carnosine determination, since one of the difficulties is the measurement of carnosine concentration in human samples. Furthermore, the potential mechanisms of carnosine's biological effects in musculature, metabolism and on immunomodulation are discussed. Finally, this review provides a section on carnosine supplementation in the form of functional food and potential health benefits and up to the present, neglected clinical use of carnosine.

Is There Association between Altered Adrenergic System Activity and Microvascular Endothelial Dysfunction Induced by a 7-Day High Salt Intake in Young Healthy Individuals.

This study aimed to test the effect of a 7-day high-salt (HS) diet on autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity in young healthy individuals and modulation of ANS on microvascular endothelial function impairment. 47 young healthy individuals took 7-day low-salt (LS) diet (3.5 g salt/day) followed by 7-day high-salt (HS) diet (~14.7 g salt/day). ANS activity was assessed by 24-h urine catecholamine excretion and 5-min heart rate variability (HRV). Skin post-occlusive reactive hyperemia (PORH) and acetylcholine-induced dilation (AChID) were assessed by laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF). Separately, mental stress test (MST) at LS and HS condition was conducted, followed by immediate measurement of plasma metanephrines' level, 5-min HRV and LDF microvascular reactivity. Noradrenaline, metanephrine and normetanephrine level, low-frequency (LF) HRV and PORH and AChID significantly decreased following HS compared to LS. MST at HS condition tended to increase HRV LF/HF ratio. Spectral analysis of PORH signal, and AChID measurement showed that MST did not significantly affect impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation due to HS loading. In this case, 7-day HS diet suppressed sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity, and attenuated microvascular reactivity in salt-resistant normotensive individuals. Suppression of SNS during HS loading represents a physiological response, rather than direct pathophysiological mechanism by which HS diet affects microvascular endothelial function in young healthy individuals.

The effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids-enriched hen eggs consumption on IgG and total plasma protein N-glycosylation in healthy individuals and cardiovascular patients.

This study determined the effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs)-enriched hen eggs consumption on immunoglobulin G (IgG) and total plasma protein N-glycan profiles and inflammatory biomarkers level in healthy individuals (N = 33) and cardiovascular (CV) patients (N = 21). Subjects were divided to Control-Healthy and Control-CV subgroups [consumed three regular hens' eggs/daily (249 mg n-3 PUFAs/day)], and n-3 PUFAs-Healthy and n-3 PUFAs-CV subgroups [consumed three n-3 PUFAs-enriched hen eggs/daily (1053 mg n-3 PUFAs/day)] for 3 weeks. Serum-free fatty acids profile and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, interleukin 6 and 10 (IL-6, IL-10) and tumor necrosis factor alpha were measured. Total plasma protein and IgG N-glycome have been profiled before and after dietary protocols. Serum n-3 PUFAs concentration significantly increased following n-3 PUFAs hen eggs consumption in both n-3 PUFAs-Healthy and n-3 PUFAs-CV. IL-10 significantly increased in both Healthy subgroups, whereas no change occurred in CV subgroups. Derived IgG N-glycan traits: bisecting N-acetylglucosamine (B) significantly decreased in n-3 PUFAs-Healthy, whereas agalactosylation (G0) and core fucosylation (CF) significantly increased in Control-Healthy. Derived total plasma protein N-glycan traits: high branching glycans, trigalactosylation, tetragalactosylation, trisialylation, tetrasialylation and antennary fucosylation significantly decreased, whereas G0, monogalactosylation (G1), neutral glycans (S0), B, CF and oligomannose structures significantly increased in n-3 PUFAs-CV. Digalactosylation significantly decreased, and G0, G1, S0, disialylation, B and CF significantly increased in Control-CV. n-3 PUFAs consumption alters IgG N-glycan traits and IL-10 in healthy individuals, and total plasma protein N-glycan traits in CV patients, by shifting them toward less inflammatory N-glycosylation profile.

Early Childhood Fat Tissue Changes-Adipocyte Morphometry, Collagen Deposition, and Expression of CD163+ Cells in Subcutaneous and Visceral Adipose Tissue of Male Children.

Childhood obesity is a complex health problem, and not many studies have been done on adipose tissue remodeling in early childhood. The aim of this study was to examine extracellular matrix remodeling in the adipose tissue of healthy male children depending on their weight status. Subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue was obtained from 45 otherwise healthy male children who underwent elective surgery for hernia repairs or orchidopexy. The children were divided into overweight/obese (n = 17) or normal weight groups (n = 28) depending on their body mass index (BMI) z-score. Serum was obtained for glucose, testosterone, triglyceride, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) measurements. Sections of adipose tissue were stained with hematoxylin and eosin to determine the adipocytes' surface area, and Masson's trichrome stain was used to detect the adipocytes' collagen content. Immunohistochemistry for CD163+ cells was also performed. The results showed that male children in the overweight group had higher serum triglyceride levels, greater adipocyte surface area and collagen content in their subcutaneous adipose tissue, more crown-like structures in fat tissues, and more CD163+ cells in their visceral adipose tissue than males in the normal weight group. In conclusion, in male children, obesity can lead to the hypertrophy of adipocytes, increased collagen deposition in subcutaneous adipose tissues, and changes in the polarization and accumulation of macrophages.

Angiotensin II type 1 receptor is involved in flow-induced vasomotor responses of isolated middle cerebral arteries: role of oxidative stress.

This study aimed to determine the mechanosensing role of angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R) in flow-induced dilation (FID) and oxidative stress production in middle cerebral arteries (MCA) of Sprague-Dawley rats. Eleven-week old, healthy male Sprague-Dawley rats on a standard diet were given the AT1R blocker losartan (1 mg/mL) in drinking water (losartan group) or tap water (control group) ad libitum for 7 days. Blockade of AT1R attenuated FID and acetylcholine-induced dilation was compared with control group. Nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor Nω-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME) and cyclooxygenase inhibitor indomethacin (Indo) significantly reduced FID in control group. The attenuated FID in losartan group was further reduced by Indo only at Δ100 mmHg, whereas l-NAME had no effect. In losartan group, Tempol (a superoxide scavenger) restored dilatation, whereas Tempol + l-NAME together significantly reduced FID compared with restored dilatation with Tempol alone. Direct fluorescence measurements of NO and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in MCA, in no-flow conditions revealed significantly reduced vascular NO levels with AT1R blockade compared with control group, whereas in flow condition increased the NO and ROS production in losartan group and had no effect in the control group. In losartan group, Tempol decreased ROS production in both no-flow and flow conditions. AT1R blockade elicited increased serum concentrations of ANG II, 8-iso-PGF2α, and TBARS, and decreased antioxidant enzyme activity (SOD and CAT). These results suggest that in small isolated cerebral arteries: 1) AT1 receptor maintains dilations in physiological conditions; 2) AT1R blockade leads to increased vascular and systemic oxidative stress, which underlies impaired FID.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The AT1R blockade impaired the endothelium-dependent, both flow- and acetylcholine-induced dilations of MCA by decreasing vascular NO production and increasing the level of vascular and systemic oxidative stress, whereas it mildly influenced the vascular wall inflammatory phenotype, but had no effect on the systemic inflammatory response. Our data provide functional and molecular evidence for an important role of AT1 receptor activation in physiological conditions, suggesting that AT1 receptors have multiple biological functions.

From Myocardial Infarction with Non-Obstructive Coronary Arteries (MINOCA) to Chronic Coronary Syndrome: Clinical Diagnostic Use of Laser Doppler Flowmetry in Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction.

BACKGROUND MINOCA is defined as myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary changes, or the absence of atherosclerotic coronary plaques (less than 50%). The long-term prognosis of these patients is as poor as for those with obstructive coronary disease. Possibilities for treatment follow-up and improvement are still lacking. This case report provides a retrospective analysis of a case of MINOCA that transformed into chronic coronary syndrome (CCS). CASE REPORT A 40-year-old patient had acute coronary syndrome without atherosclerotic changes in the great epicardial coronary arteries, but with slow coronary flow in the left anterior descending coronary artery in 2011 and 2014. Two-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography showed no echocardiographic impairment of myocardial contractility. The comorbidities were visceral obesity, dyslipidemia, and smoking history. After the addition of a calcium channel blocker and trimetazidine to standard therapy, there were no anginal symptoms. In 2019, during a regular health check-up, contrast echocardiography showed a slow rinse of contrast in the apical and medial/distal anterolateral segment with reduced longitudinal strain in the same myocardial segments. Laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) showed impaired microcirculatory function in the skin microcirculation. CONCLUSIONS This case report highlights: 1) use of the non-invasive, inexpensive, and easy-to-use LDF technique for microcirculatory dysfunction confirmation; 2) follow-up of MINOCA to CCS transition; 3) visceral obesity as a risk factor for MINOCA and CCS; and 4) the role of trimetazidine in CCS.

Oxidative Stress in Ischemic Heart Disease.

One of the novel interesting topics in the study of cardiovascular disease is the role of the oxidation system, since inflammation and oxidative stress are known to lead to cardiovascular diseases, their progression and complications. During decades of research, many complex interactions between agents of oxidative stress, oxidation, and antioxidant systems have been elucidated, and numerous important pathophysiological links to na number of disorders and diseases have been established. This review article will present the most relevant knowledge linking oxidative stress to vascular dysfunction and disease. The review will focus on the role of oxidative stress in endotheleial dysfunction, atherosclerosis, and other pathogenetic processes and mechanisms that contribute to the development of ischemic heart disease.

The Physiological Effect of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (n-3 PUFAs) Intake and Exercise on Hemorheology, Microvascular Function, and Physical Performance in Health and Cardiovascular Diseases; Is There an Interaction of Exercise and Dietary n-3 PUFA Intake?

Physical activity has a beneficial effect on systemic hemodynamics, physical strength, and cardiac function in cardiovascular (CV) patients. Potential beneficial effects of dietary intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), such as α-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid on hemorheology, vascular function, inflammation and potential to improve physical performance as well as other CV parameters are currently investigated. Recent meta-analysis suggests no effect of n-3 PUFA supplementation on CV function and outcomes of CV diseases. On the other hand, some studies support beneficial effects of n-3 PUFAs dietary intake on CV and muscular system, as well as on immune responses in healthy and in CV patients. Furthermore, the interaction of exercise and dietary n-3 PUFA intake is understudied. Supplementation of n-3 PUFAs has been shown to have antithrombotic effects (by decreasing blood viscosity, decreasing coagulation factor and PAI-1 levels and platelet aggregation/reactivity, enhancing fibrinolysis, but without effects on erythrocyte deformability). They decrease inflammation by decreasing IL-6, MCP-1, TNFα and hsCRP levels, expression of endothelial cell adhesion molecules and significantly affect blood composition of fatty acids. Treatment with n-3 PUFAs enhances brachial artery blood flow and conductance during exercise and enhances microvascular post-occlusive hyperemic response in healthy humans, however, the effects are unknown in cardiovascular patients. Supplementation of n-3 PUFAs may improve anaerobic endurance and may modulate oxygen consumption during intense exercise, may increase metabolic capacity, enhance endurance capacity delaying the onset of fatigue, and improving muscle hypertrophy and neuromuscular function in humans and animal models. In addition, n-3 PUFAs have anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects and may attenuate delayed-onset muscle soreness and muscle stiffness, and preserve joint mobility. On the other hand, effects of n-3 PUFAs were variably observed in men and women and they vary depending on dietary protocol, type of supplementation and type of sports activity undertaken, both in healthy and cardiovascular patients. In this review we will discuss the physiological effects of n-3 PUFA intake and exercise on hemorheology, microvascular function, immunomodulation and inflammation and physical performance in healthy persons and in cardiovascular diseases; elucidating if there is an interaction of exercise and diet.

Presence of Intramyocardial Fat Tissue in the Right Atrium and Right Ventricle - Postmortem Human Analysis.

Histologic and radiologic studies describe intramyocardial fat tissue as a normal finding or as part of cardiac pathology. The role of fat cells within the myocardium is not fully understood. The aim of this study was to assess fat tissue distribution in the myocardium of right atrium (RA) and right ventricle (RV) and age differences in subjects free from cardiac disease. The study included 10 males without cardiac disease divided into two groups according to age (below/above 50 years). Three cross sections were performed (RV free wall and apex and RA free wall) with histomorphological analysis on digital photographs. The shares of total myocardial fat (TMF), peri-vascular fat (PVF) and non-perivascular (nPVF) fat were calculated. Samples from the older group had larger amounts of fat in the epicardium and myocardium, without statistically significant differ-ence (TMF p=0.847, PVF p=0.4 and nPVF p=0.4). The largest quantities of fat tissue were found in the RV apex samples (14.9%), followed by RV free wall (7.5%) and RA (4.5%), where total apical RV fat share was significantly larger than in RA sample (p=0.044). Intramyocardial fat cells were present within the non-diseased RA and RV in all samples, mostly in the apex. Further investigations on age difference, effect of visceral obesity and sex differences are needed.

Coronary microvascular dysfunction in diabetes mellitus.

The significance, mechanisms and consequences of coronary microvascular dysfunction associated with diabetes mellitus are topics into which we have insufficient insight at this time. It is widely recognized that endothelial dysfunction that is caused by diabetes in various vascular beds contributes to a wide range of complications and exerts unfavorable effects on microcirculatory regulation. The coronary microcirculation is precisely regulated through a number of interconnected physiological processes with the purpose of matching local blood flow to myocardial metabolic demands. Dysregulation of this network might contribute to varying degrees of pathological consequences. This review discusses the most important findings regarding coronary microvascular dysfunction in diabetes from pre-clinical and clinical perspectives.

Coronary Microcirculatory Dysfunction in Human Cardiomyopathies: A Pathologic and Pathophysiologic Review.

Cardiomyopathies are a heterogeneous group of diseases of the myocardium. The term cardiomyopathy involves a wide range of pathogenic mechanisms that affect the structural and functional states of cardiomyocytes, extravascular tissues, and coronary vasculature, including both epicardial coronary arteries and the microcirculation. In the developed phase, cardiomyopathies present with various clinical symptoms: dyspnea, chest pain, palpitations, swelling of the extremities, arrhythmias, and sudden cardiac death. Due to the heterogeneity of cardiomyopathic patterns and symptoms, their diagnosis and therapies are great challenges. Despite extensive research, the relation between the structural and functional abnormalities of the myocardium and the coronary circulation are still not well understood in the various forms of cardiomyopathy. The main pathological characteristics of cardiomyopathies and the coronary microcirculation develop in a progressive manner due to (1) genetic-immunologic-systemic factors; (2) comorbidities with endothelial, myogenic, metabolic, and inflammatory changes; (3) aging-induced arteriosclerosis; and (4) myocardial fibrosis. The aim of this review is to summarize the most important common pathological features and/or adaptations of the coronary microcirculation in various types of cardiomyopathies and to integrate the present understanding of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms responsible for the development of various types of cardiomyopathies. Although microvascular dysfunction is present and contributes to cardiac dysfunction and the potential outcome of disease, the current therapeutic approaches are not specific for the given types of cardiomyopathy.

Epicardial Adipose Tissue Is Nonlinearly Related to Anthropometric Measures and Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue.

Introduction. Adipose tissue is the largest endocrine organ, composed of subcutaneous (SAT) and visceral adipose tissue (VAT), the latter being highly associated with coronary artery disease (CAD). Expansion of epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) is linked to CAD. One way of assessing the CAD risk is with low-cost anthropometric measures, although they are inaccurate and cannot discriminate between VAT and SAT. The aim of this study is to evaluate (1) the relationship between EAT thickness, SAT thickness and anthropometric measures in a cohort of patients assessed at the cardiology unit and (2) determine predictive power of anthropometric measures and EAT and SAT thickness in establishment of CAD. Methods. Anthropometric measures were obtained from 53 CAD and 42 non-CAD patients. Vascular and structural statuses were obtained with coronarography and echocardiography, as well as measurements of the EAT and SAT thickness. Results. Anthropometric measures showed moderate positive correlation with EAT and SAT thickness. Anthropometric measures and SAT follow nonlinear S curve relationship with EAT. Strong nonlinear power curve relationship was observed between EAT and SAT thinner than 10 mm. Anthropometric measures and EAT and SAT were poor predictors of CAD. Conclusion. Anthropometric measures and SAT have nonlinear relationship with EAT. EAT thickness and anthropometric measures have similar CAD predictive value.

Prognostic value of galectin-3 in patients with heart failure.

Galectins are a family of soluble ß-galactoside-binding lectins that have important role in inflammation, immunity, and cancer. Galectin-3 as a part of this lectin family plays a very important role in development of heart failure. According to recent papers, galectin-3 plasma level correlates with heart failure outcome, primarily with rehospitalisation and death from heart failure. This paper summarizes the most recent advances in galectin-3 research, with the accent on the role of galectin-3 in pathophysiology of myocardial remodelling and heart failure development--with preserved and reduced ejection fraction, and some implication on development of new disease modifying drugs.

Assessment of coronary hemodynamics and vascular function.

Coronary blood flow closely matches to metabolic demands of heart and myocardial oxygen consumption and is conditioned by function of coronary resistance vessels. The microvascular endothelium of coronary resistance vessels is exposed to a spatially and temporally regulated input from cardiomyocytes and the haemodynamic forces of the cardiac cycle. Functional measurements of coronary pressure and flow are important approaches that provide complementary information on the function of coronary vessel function that could not be assessed by the methods utilized for the anatomic characterization of coronary disease, such as coronary angiography. The goal of this paper is to review the methodologies for assessment of coronary vascular function and haemodynamics which are utilized in research and to discuss their potential applicability in the clinical settings.