Strategies for the structural analysis of multi-protein complexes: lessons from the 3D-Repertoire project.

Structural studies of multi-protein complexes, whether by X-ray diffraction, scattering, NMR spectroscopy or electron microscopy, require stringent quality control of the component samples. The inability to produce 'keystone' subunits in a soluble and correctly folded form is a serious impediment to the reconstitution of the complexes. Co-expression of the components offers a valuable alternative to the expression of single proteins as a route to obtain sufficient amounts of the sample of interest. Even in cases where milligram-scale quantities of purified complex of interest become available, there is still no guarantee that good quality crystals can be obtained. At this step, protein engineering of one or more components of the complex is frequently required to improve solubility, yield or the ability to crystallize the sample. Subsequent characterization of these constructs may be performed by solution techniques such as Small Angle X-ray Scattering and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance to identify 'well behaved' complexes. Herein, we recount our experiences gained at protein production and complex assembly during the European 3D Repertoire project (3DR). The goal of this consortium was to obtain structural information on multi-protein complexes from yeast by combining crystallography, electron microscopy, NMR and in silico modeling methods. We present here representative set case studies of complexes that were produced and analyzed within the 3DR project. Our experience provides useful insight into strategies that are more generally applicable for structural analysis of protein complexes.

The S. cerevisiae SET3 complex includes two histone deacetylases, Hos2 and Hst1, and is a meiotic-specific repressor of the sporulation gene program.

Set3 is one of two proteins in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae that, like Drosophila Trithorax, contains both SET and PHD domains. We found that Set3 forms a single complex, Set3C, with Snt1, YIL112w, Sif2, Cpr1, and two putative histone deacetylases, Hos2 and NAD-dependent Hst1. Set3C includes NAD-dependent and independent deacetylase activities when assayed in vitro. Homology searches suggest that Set3C is the yeast analog of the mammalian HDAC3/SMRT complex. Set3C represses genes in early/middle of the yeast sporulation program, including the key meiotic regulators ime2 and ndt80. Whereas Hos2 is only found in Set3C, Hst1 is also present in a complex with Sum1, supporting previous characterizations of Hst1 and Sum1 as repressors of middle sporulation genes during vegetative growth. However, Hst1 is not required for meiotic repression by Set3C, thus implying that Set3C (-Hst1) and not Hst1-Sum1, is the meiotic-specific repressor of early/middle sporulation genes.

The tandem affinity purification (TAP) method: a general procedure of protein complex purification.

Identification of components present in biological complexes requires their purification to near homogeneity. Methods of purification vary from protein to protein, making it impossible to design a general purification strategy valid for all cases. We have developed the tandem affinity purification (TAP) method as a tool that allows rapid purification under native conditions of complexes, even when expressed at their natural level. Prior knowledge of complex composition or function is not required. The TAP method requires fusion of the TAP tag, either N- or C-terminally, to the target protein of interest. Starting from a relatively small number of cells, active macromolecular complexes can be isolated and used for multiple applications. Variations of the method to specifically purify complexes containing two given components or to subtract undesired complexes can easily be implemented. The TAP method was initially developed in yeast but can be successfully adapted to various organisms. Its simplicity, high yield, and wide applicability make the TAP method a very useful procedure for protein purification and proteome exploration.

The yeast POP2 gene encodes a nuclease involved in mRNA deadenylation.

The major mRNA degradation pathway involves deadenylation of the target molecule followed by decapping and, finally, 5'-->3' exonuclease digestion of the mRNA body. While yeast factors involved in the decapping and exonuclease degradation steps have been identified, the nature of the factor(s) involved in the deadenylation step remained elusive. Database searches for yeast proteins related to the mammalian deadenylase PARN identified the Pop2 protein (Pop2p) as a potential deadenylase. While Pop2p was previously identified as a factor affecting transcription, we identified a non-canonical RNase D sequence signature in its sequence. Analysis of the fate of a reporter mRNA in a pop2 mutant demonstrates that Pop2p is required for efficient mRNA degradation in vivo. Characterisation of mRNA degradation intermediates accumulating in this mutant supports the involvement of Pop2p in mRNA deadenylation in vivo. Similar phenotypes are observed in yeast strains lacking the Ccr4 protein, which is known to be associated with Pop2p. A recombinant Pop2p fragment encompassing the putative catalytic domain degrades poly(A) in vitro demonstrating that Pop2p is a nuclease. We also demonstrate that poly(A) is a better competitor than poly(G) or poly(C) of the Pop2p nuclease activity. Altogether, our study indicates that Pop2p is a nuclease subunit of the yeast deadenylase and suggests that Pop2p homologues in other species may have similar functions.

Positive feedback in eukaryotic gene networks: cell differentiation by graded to binary response conversion.

Feedback is a ubiquitous control mechanism of gene networks. Here, we have used positive feedback to construct a synthetic eukaryotic gene switch in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Within this system, a continuous gradient of constitutively expressed transcriptional activator is translated into a cell phenotype switch when the activator is expressed autocatalytically. This finding is consistent with a mathematical model whose analysis shows that continuous input parameters are converted into a bimodal probability distribution by positive feedback, and that this resembles analog-digital conversion. The autocatalytic switch is a robust property in eukaryotic gene expression. Although the behavior of individual cells within a population is random, the proportion of the cell population displaying either low or high expression states can be regulated. These results have implications for understanding the graded and probabilistic mechanisms of enhancer action and cell differentiation.

RNA binding in an Sm core domain: X-ray structure and functional analysis of an archaeal Sm protein complex.

Eukaryotic Sm and Sm-like proteins associate with RNA to form the core domain of ribonucleoprotein particles involved in pre-mRNA splicing and other processes. Recently, putative Sm proteins of unknown function have been identified in Archaea. We show by immunoprecipitation experiments that the two Sm proteins present in Archaeoglobus fulgidus (AF-Sm1 and AF-Sm2) associate with RNase P RNA in vivo, suggesting a role in tRNA processing. The AF-Sm1 protein also interacts specifically with oligouridylate in vitro. We have solved the crystal structures of this protein and a complex with RNA. AF-Sm1 forms a seven-membered ring, with the RNA interacting inside the central cavity on one face of the doughnut-shaped complex. The bases are bound via stacking and specific hydrogen bonding contacts in pockets lined by residues highly conserved in archaeal and eukaryotic Sm proteins, while the phosphates remain solvent accessible. A comparison with the structures of human Sm protein dimers reveals closely related monomer folds and intersubunit contacts, indicating that the architecture of the Sm core domain and RNA binding have been conserved during evolution.

Stoichiometry of the Sm proteins in yeast spliceosomal snRNPs supports the heptamer ring model of the core domain.

Seven Sm proteins (B/B', D1, D2, D3, E, F and G proteins) containing a common sequence motif form a globular core domain within the U1, U2, U5 and U4/U6 spliceosomal snRNPs. Based on the crystal structure of two Sm protein dimers we have previously proposed a model of the snRNP core domain consisting of a ring of seven Sm proteins. This model postulates that there is only a single copy of each Sm protein in the core domain. In order to test this model we have determined the stoichiometry of the Sm proteins in yeast spliceosomal snRNPs. We have constructed seven different yeast strains each of which produces one of the Sm proteins tagged with a calmodulin-binding peptide (CBP). Further, each of these strains was transformed with one of seven different plasmids coding for one of the seven Sm proteins tagged with protein A. When one Sm protein is expressed as a CBP-tagged protein from the chromosome and a second protein was produced with a protein A-tag from the plasmid, the protein A-tag was detected strongly in the fraction bound to calmodulin beads, demonstrating that two different tagged Sm proteins can be assembled into functional snRNPs. In contrast when the CBP and protein A-tagged forms of the same Sm protein were co-expressed, no protein A-tag was detectable in the fraction bound to calmodulin. These results indicate that there is only a single copy of each Sm protein in the spliceosomal snRNP core domain and therefore strongly support the heptamer ring model of the spliceosomal snRNP core domain.

The apoptosis-promoting factor TIA-1 is a regulator of alternative pre-mRNA splicing.

We report here that the apoptosis-promoting protein TIA-1 regulates alternative pre-mRNA splicing of the Drosophila melanogaster gene male-specific-lethal 2 and of the human apoptotic gene Fas. TIA-1 associates selectively with pre-mRNAs that contain 5' splice sites followed by U-rich sequences. TIA-1 binding to the U-rich stretches facilitates 5' splice site recognition by U1 snRNP. This activity is critical for activation of the weak 5' splice site of msl-2 and for modulating the choice of splice site partner in Fas. Structural and functional similarities with the Saccharomyces cerevisiae splicing factor Nam8 suggest striking evolutionary conservation of a mechanism of pre-mRNA splicing regulation that controls biological processes as diverse as meiosis in yeast, dosage compensation in fruit flies, or programmed cell death in humans.

The spliceosomal snRNP core complex of Trypanosoma brucei: cloning and functional analysis reveals seven Sm protein constituents.

Each of the trypanosome small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) U2, U4/U6, and U5, as well as the spliced leader (SL) RNP, contains a core of common proteins, which we have previously identified. This core is unusual because it is not recognized by anti-Sm Abs and it associates with an Sm-related sequence in the trypanosome small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). Using peptide sequences derived from affinity-purified U2 snRNP proteins, we have cloned cDNAs for five common proteins of 8.5, 10, 12.5, 14, and 15 kDa of Trypanosoma brucei and identified them as Sm proteins SmF (8.5 kDa), -E (10 kDa), -D1 (12.5 kDa), -G (14 kDa), and -D2 (15 kDa), respectively. Furthermore, we found the trypanosome SmB (T. brucei) and SmD3 (Trypanosoma cruzi) homologues through database searches, thus completing a set of seven canonical Sm proteins. Sequence comparisons of the trypanosome proteins revealed several deviations in highly conserved positions from the Sm consensus motif. We have identified a network of specific heterodimeric and -trimeric Sm protein interactions in vitro. These results are summarized in a model of the trypanosome Sm core, which argues for a strong conservation of the Sm particle structure. The conservation extends also to the functional level, because at least one trypanosome Sm protein, SmG, was able to specifically complement a corresponding mutation in yeast.

Effects of phosphorothioate modifications on precursor tRNA processing by eukaryotic RNase P enzymes.

The cleavage mechanism has been studied for nuclear RNase P from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Homo sapiens sapiens and Dictyostelium discoideum, representing distantly related branches of the Eukarya. This was accomplished by using precursor tRNAs (ptRNAs) carrying a single Rp or Sp-phosphorothioate modification at the normal RNase P cleavage site (position -1/+1). All three eukaryotic RNase P enzymes cleaved the Sp-diastereomeric ptRNA exclusively one nucleotide upstream (position -2/-1) of the modified canonical cleavage site. Rp-diastereomeric ptRNA was cleaved with low efficiency at the modified -1/+1 site by human RNase P, at both the -2/-1 and -1/+1 site by yeast RNase P, and exclusively at the -2/-1 site by D. discoideum RNase P. The presence of Mn(2+ )and particularly Cd(2+) inhibited the activity of all three enzymes. Nevertheless, a Mn(2+ )rescue of cleavage at the modified -1/+1 site was observed with yeast RNase P and the Rp-diastereomeric ptRNA, consistent with direct metal ion coordination to the (pro)-Rp substituent during catalysis as observed for bacterial RNase P enzymes. In summary, our results have revealed common active-site constraints for eukaryotic and bacterial RNase P enzymes. In all cases, an Rp as well as an Sp-phosphorothioate modification at the RNase P cleavage site strongly interfered with the catalytic process, whereas substantial functional interference is essentially restricted to one of the two diastereomers in other RNA and protein-catalyzed hydrolysis reactions, such as those catalyzed by the Tetrahymena ribozyme and nuclease P1.

A dual role for BBP/ScSF1 in nuclear pre-mRNA retention and splicing.

The MSL5 gene, which codes for the splicing factor BBP/ScSF1, is essential in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, yet previous analyses failed to reveal a defect in assembly of (pre)-spliceosomes or in vitro splicing associated with its depletion. We generated 11 temperature-sensitive (ts) mutants and one cold-sensitive (cs) mutant in the corresponding gene and analyzed their phenotypes. While all mutants were blocked in the formation of commitment complex 2 (CC2) at non-permissive and permissive temperature, the ts mutants showed no defect in spliceosome formation and splicing in vitro. The cs mutant was defective in (pre)-spliceosome formation, but residual splicing activity could be detected. In vivo splicing of reporters carrying introns weakened by mutations in the 5' splice site and/or in the branchpoint region was affected in all mutants. Pre-mRNA leakage to the cytoplasm was strongly increased (up to 40-fold) in the mutants. A combination of ts mutants with a disruption of upf1, a gene involved in nonsense-mediated decay, resulted in a specific synthetic growth phenotype, suggesting that the essential function of SF1 in yeast could be related to the retention of pre-mRNA in the nucleus.

The Schizosaccharomyces pombe protein Yab8p and a novel factor, Yip1p, share structural and functional similarity with the spinal muscular atrophy-associated proteins SMN and SIP1.

The motor neuron disease spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is caused by reduced levels of functional survival of motor neurons (SMN) protein. Previous studies have shown that SMN binds to the SMN-interacting protein SIP1 and mediates the assembly of spliceosomal U snRNPs in the cytoplasm. In addition, a nuclear function for SMN in pre-mRNA splicing has recently been proposed. Here, we describe the analysis of the Schizo-saccharomyces pombe protein Yab8p and provide evidence that it is structurally and functionally related to SMN found in higher eukaryotes. We show that Yab8p interacts via its N-terminus with a novel protein termed Yip1p. Importantly, Yip1p exhibits homology to SIP1, and the mode of binding to Yab8p is remarkably similar to the SMN-SIP1 interaction. Hence, Yip1p is likely to be the homologue of SIP1 in S.pombe. Yab8p and Yip1p localize predominantly in the nucleus. Genetic studies demonstrate that Yab8p is essential for viability. Strikingly, suppression of YAB8 expression in a conditional knock-out strain causes nuclear accumulation of poly(A) mRNA and inhibition of splicing. These data identify Yab8p as a novel factor involved in splicing and suggest that Yab8p exerts a function similar or identical to the nuclear pool of SMN. Our studies provide a model system to study the cellular function of SMN in yeast, and should help in understanding the molecular events leading to SMA.

A Sm-like protein complex that participates in mRNA degradation.

In eukaryotes, seven Sm proteins bind to the U1, U2, U4 and U5 spliceosomal snRNAs while seven Smlike proteins (Lsm2p-Lsm8p) are associated with U6 snRNA. Another yeast Sm-like protein, Lsm1p, does not interact with U6 snRNA. Surprisingly, using the tandem affinity purification (TAP) method, we identified Lsm1p among the subunits associated with Lsm3p. Coprecipitation experiments demonstrated that Lsm1p, together with Lsm2p-Lsm7p, forms a new seven-subunit complex. We purified the two related Sm-like protein complexes and identified the proteins recovered in the purified preparations by mass spectrometry. This confirmed the association of the Lsm2p-Lsm8p complex with U6 snRNA. In contrast, the Lsm1p-Lsm7p complex is associated with Pat1p and Xrn1p exoribonuclease, suggesting a role in mRNA degradation. Deletions of LSM1, 6, 7 and PAT1 genes increased the half-life of reporter mRNAs. Interestingly, accumulating mRNAs were capped, suggesting a block in mRNA decay at the decapping step. These results indicate the involvement of a new conserved Sm-like protein complex and a new factor, Pat1p, in mRNA degradation and suggest a physical connection between decapping and exonuclease trimming.

REF, an evolutionary conserved family of hnRNP-like proteins, interacts with TAP/Mex67p and participates in mRNA nuclear export.

Vertebrate TAP and its yeast ortholog Mex67p are involved in the export of messenger RNAs from the nucleus. TAP has also been implicated in the export of simian type D viral RNAs bearing the constitutive transport element (CTE). Although TAP directly interacts with CTE-bearing RNAs, the mode of interaction of TAP/Mex67p with cellular mRNAs is different from that with the CTE RNA and is likely to be mediated by protein-protein interactions. Here we show that Mex67p directly interacts with Yra1p, an essential yeast hnRNP-like protein. This interaction is evolutionarily conserved as Yra1p also interacts with TAP. Conditional expression in yeast cells implicates Yra1 p in the export of cellular mRNAs. Database searches revealed that Yra1p belongs to an evolutionarily conserved family of hnRNP-like proteins having more than one member in Mus musculus, Xenopus laevis, Caenorhabditis elegans, and Schizosaccharomyces pombe and at least one member in several species including plants. The murine members of the family directly interact with TAP. Because members of this protein family are characterized by the presence of one RNP-motif RNA-binding domain and exhibit RNA-binding activity, we called these proteins REF-bps for RNA and export factor binding proteins. Thus, Yra1p and members of the REF family of hnRNP-like proteins may facilitate the interaction of TAP/Mex67p with cellular mRNAs.

Uncoupling yeast intron recognition from transcription with recursive splicing.

Pre-mRNA splicing has to be coordinated with other processes occurring in the nucleus including transcription, mRNA 3' end formation and mRNA export. To analyze the relationship between transcription and splicing, we constructed a network of nested introns. Introns were inserted in the 5' splice site and/or branchpoint of a synthetic yeast intron interrupting a reporter gene. The inserted introns mask the recipient intron from the cellular machinery until they are removed by splicing. Production of functional mRNA from these constructs therefore requires recognition of a spliced RNA as a splicing substrate. We show that recurrent splicing occurs in a sequential and ordered fashion in vivo. Thus, in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, intron recognition and pre-spliceosome assembly is not tightly coupled to transcription.

YIDB: the Yeast Intron DataBase.

The Yeast Intron DataBase (YIDB) contains currently available information about all introns encoded in the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Introns are divided according to their mechanism of excision: group I and group II introns, pre-mRNA introns, tRNA introns and the HAC1 intron. Information about the host genome, the type of RNA in which they are inserted and their primary structure are provided together with references. For nuclear pre-mRNA introns, transcription frequencies, as determined by microarray experiments, have also been included. This updated database is accessible at: http://www.embl-heidelberg. de/ExternalInfo/seraphin/yidb.html

A generic protein purification method for protein complex characterization and proteome exploration.

We have developed a generic procedure to purify proteins expressed at their natural level under native conditions using a novel tandem affinity purification (TAP) tag. The TAP tag allows the rapid purification of complexes from a relatively small number of cells without prior knowledge of the complex composition, activity, or function. Combined with mass spectrometry, the TAP strategy allows for the identification of proteins interacting with a given target protein. The TAP method has been tested in yeast but should be applicable to other cells or organisms.

Luc7p, a novel yeast U1 snRNP protein with a role in 5' splice site recognition.

The characterization of a novel yeast-splicing factor, Luc7p, is presented. The LUC7 gene was identified by a mutation that causes lethality in a yeast strain lacking the nuclear cap-binding complex (CBC). Luc7p is similar in sequence to metazoan proteins that have arginine-serine and arginine-glutamic acid repeat sequences characteristic of a family of splicing factors. We show that Luc7p is a component of yeast U1 snRNP and is essential for vegetative growth. The composition of yeast U1 snRNP is altered in luc7 mutant strains. Extracts of these strains are unable to support any of the defined steps of splicing unless recombinant Luc7p is added. Although the in vivo defect in splicing wild-type reporter introns in a luc7 mutant strain is comparatively mild, splicing of introns with nonconsensus 5' splice site or branchpoint sequences is more defective in the mutant strain than in wild-type strains. By use of reporters that have two competing 5' splice sites, a loss of efficient splicing to the cap proximal splice site is observed in luc7 cells, analogous to the defect seen in strains lacking CBC. CBC can be coprecipitated with U1 snRNP from wild-type, but not from luc7, yeast strains. These data suggest that the loss of Luc7p disrupts U1 snRNP-CBC interaction, and that this interaction contributes to normal 5' splice site recognition.