Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation in Psychological Research: Exploring Data Trends & Researcher Opinions.

Psychology researchers have historically neglected variables related to sex, gender, and sexual orientation, leading to the erasure of sex, gender, and sexual orientation in research, which limits the generalizability of psychological findings. We argue that these important variables need to be considered more consistently by researchers across psychology subdisciplines. In Study 1 we found that 15.1% of a large MTurk sample (i.e., 8500+) identified as a sexual or gender minority (SGM; e.g., lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer [LGBTQ+]). In addition, data from Study 1 showed that our youngest cohort (i.e., aged 18-25 years) reported significantly higher rates of LGBTQ+ identification (22.7%) than our oldest cohort (i.e., 65-84 years; 1.3%), suggesting that endorsement of these idnetities is increasing. Next, in Study 2 we found that psychology researchers (N = 135) tended to rate expansive sex, gender, and sexual orientation demographic variables as important in general, but were much less likely to report actually using these variables in their own studies. Moreover, younger faculty and faculty who identified as women rated these variables as more important than their colleagues. Based on our findings, we conclude that psychology researchers should use expansive sex, gender, and sexual orientation items in their studies, report these demographic variables consistently, and analyze their data by these important variables when possible. Because a substantial and growing proportion of individuals identify as LGBTQ+, and because SGM identity is related to additional life stressors, it is imperative to better understand these individuals. Various resources are offered and challenges are discussed.

Is practice good enough? Retrieval benefits students with ADHD but does not compensate for poor encoding in unmedicated students.

Introduction: A significant proportion of currently enrolled college students receive support for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and these students are often at risk of academic failure. Retrieval practice or self-testing is an effective, accessible, and affordable tool for improving academic performance. Three recent studies found conflicting results with regards to the effectiveness of retrieval practice in this population. Methods: The present study compared 36 individuals with ADHD to 36 controls. Participants studied Swahili-English word pairs that varied in difficulty. Half of the pairs were repeatedly studied, and the other half repeatedly tested. Results: On a final test, all participants showed a benefit of retrieval practice relative to restudy and participant status did not moderate the effect. However, unmedicated individuals with ADHD performed worse overall, both during the encoding phase and on the final test, whereas medicated participants were not significantly different from controls. Discussion: An examination of self-reported encoding strategies found unmedicated participants used fewer deep strategies at encoding, consistent with prior work on ADHD and memory. Although retrieval practice is effective in this group, improved strategy use may be necessary to ensure performance that is fully equivalent to that of students without ADHD.

Transitioning to college with ADHD: a qualitative examination of parental support and the renegotiation of the parent-child relationship.

Objective: In the transition to college, students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) often face difficulties. Parental support may aid in the successful adjustment to college, and a strong parent-child relationship (PCR) may optimize the balance between autonomy and support necessary during this transition. Method: Few studies have examined this; therefore, a qualitative study using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) was conducted. First- and second-year college students with ADHD participated in open-ended, one-on-one interviews (N = 11; 64% women, 91% White). Results: The two broad categories of findings included Parental Support and the Renegotiation of the Parent-Child Relationship. Participants described feeling supported by their parents in the progress toward their short- and long-term goals. Students described this support as helpful when they managed or initiated the contact, but as unhelpful when the parent was perceived as over involved. They described a strong PCR in this transition as helpful to their adjustment and enjoyed the renegotiation of the PCR in terms of their own increased autonomy and responsibility. Many additional themes and sub-themes are described herein. Conclusion: Optimal levels of involvement and support from parents in the context of a strong PCR is beneficial for adjustment to college for those with ADHD. We discuss the clinical implications of our findings, such as therapists helping families transition to college, and working with college students with ADHD on an adaptive renegotiation of the PCR in their transition to adulthood.

ADHD and Psychological Need Fulfillment in College Students.

OBJECTIVE: Self-determination theory suggests that the satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs-autonomy, competence, relatedness-are uniquely associated with overall well-being. Undergraduates with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) experience more academic-related impairment and are less likely to graduate. Thus, well-being is important to understand and aim to improve in these students. METHOD: Students at four universities (N = 2,197) completed a survey and reported previous diagnoses, ADHD symptoms, and psychological need satisfaction and frustration. Group differences were explored via t-tests; associations were explored via structural equation modeling. RESULTS: The ADHD group reported lower satisfaction and higher frustration across all psychological needs. Inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity were uniquely associated with aspects of need fulfillment beyond the impact of comorbid symptoms. Sex differences emerged such that women with ADHD had the lowest overall need satisfaction. CONCLUSIONS: Addressing need fulfillment, both satisfaction and frustration, in interventions with undergraduates with clinical/subclinical levels of ADHD may optimize treatment effectiveness.

Acute Effects of Physical Exercise on Cognitive and Psychological Functioning in College Students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

We sought to elucidate the acute effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) among college students with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Participants were age- and sex-matched across ADHD (n = 18) and non-ADHD groups (n = 18) and both groups completed baseline (non-HIIT) and experimental sessions (HIIT). We examined within- and between-subject effects on a continuous performance task (CPT) and self-reported ADHD and internalizing symptomatology. We found that the degree of improvement on ADHD and depressive symptomatology, as well as processing speed and response variability following HIIT was significantly greater for the ADHD group than the comparison group. Further investigations such as randomized controlled trials focusing on the chronic effects of sustained HIIT interventions are needed to substantiate the potential feasibility and efficacy of HIIT as an intervention. HIIT may be a useful adjunct to psychosocial and/or pharmacological treatments for college students with ADHD because it: (a) yields immediate, acute improvements in executive functioning, ADHD, and mood; (b) promotes improved physical and mental health; (c) poses a relatively low risk of deleterious effects in apparently healthy college students. Even with the need for additional research, current data suggest a single, brief, high-intensity bout of aerobic exercise can yield immediate significant short-term improvements. These improvements may enhance functioning and improve outcomes for college students with ADHD.

College Readiness: Differences Between First-Year Undergraduates With and Without ADHD.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive behaviors. Impairment in individuals diagnosed with ADHD is significant; one such domain of impairment is achieving a college education. College students with ADHD tend to have lower grade point averages, take longer to graduate, and have higher dropout rates than individuals without ADHD. Those with ADHD may be inadequately prepared for college. College readiness can be broken into self-determination, academic skills, and daily living skills, all of which are possible areas of deficit for individuals with ADHD, given their common characteristics. In the current study, we examined differences in college readiness in undergraduates with and without ADHD. In general, students with ADHD were found to be less prepared for college than those without ADHD, and specific areas of unpreparedness were identified. The findings support the need for intervention for students with ADHD before or early in their college careers. Further research on specific skill deficits and ameliorative steps is needed.