The Number and Complexity of Pure and Recombinant HIV-1 Strains Observed within Incident Infections during the HIV and Malaria Cohort Study Conducted in Kericho, Kenya, from 2003 to 2006.

Characterization of HIV-1 subtype diversity in regions where vaccine trials are conducted is critical for vaccine development and testing. This study describes the molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 within a tea-plantation community cohort in Kericho, Kenya. Sixty-three incident infections were ascertained in the HIV and Malaria Cohort Study conducted in Kericho from 2003 to 2006. HIV-1 strains from 58 of those individuals were full genome characterized and compared to two previous Kenyan studies describing 41 prevalent infections from a blood bank survey (1999-2000) and 21 infections from a higher-risk cohort containing a mix of incident and prevalent infections (2006). Among the 58 strains from the community cohort, 43.1% were pure subtypes (36.2% A1, 5.2% C, and 1.7% G) and 56.9% were inter-subtype recombinants (29.3% A1D, 8.6% A1CD, 6.9% A1A2D, 5.2% A1C, 3.4% A1A2CD, and 3.4% A2D). This diversity and the resulting genetic distance between the observed strains will need to be addressed when vaccine immunogens are chosen. In consideration of current vaccine development efforts, the strains from these three studies were compared to five candidate vaccines (each of which are viral vectored, carrying inserts corresponding to parts of gag, pol, and envelope), which have been developed for possible use in sub-Saharan Africa. The sequence comparison between the observed strains and the candidate vaccines indicates that in the presence of diverse recombinants, a bivalent vaccine is more likely to provide T-cell epitope coverage than monovalent vaccines even when the inserts of the bivalent vaccine are not subtype-matched to the local epidemic.

Kericho CLinic-based ART Diagnostic Evaluation (CLADE): design, accrual, and baseline characteristics of a randomized controlled trial conducted in predominately rural, district-level, HIV clinics of Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Prospective clinical trial data regarding routine HIV-1 viral load (VL) monitoring of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in non-research clinics of Sub-Saharan Africa are needed for policy makers. METHODS: CLinic-based ART Diagnostic Evaluation (CLADE) is a randomized, controlled trial (RCT) evaluating feasibility, superiority, and cost-effectiveness of routine VL vs. standard of care (clinical and immunological) monitoring in adults initiating dual nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI)+non-NRTI ART. Participants were randomized (1:1) at 7 predominately rural, non-research, district-level clinics of western Kenya. Descriptive statistics present accrual patterns and baseline cohort characteristics. RESULTS: Over 15 months, 820 adults enrolled at 7 sites with 86-152 enrolled per site. Monthly site enrollment ranged from 2-92 participants. Full (100%) informed consent compliance was independently documented. Half (49.9%) had HIV diagnosed through voluntary counseling and testing. Study arms were similar: mostly females (57.6%) aged 37.6 (SD = 9.0) years with low CD4 (166 [SD = 106]) cells/m3). Notable proportions had WHO Stage III or IV disease (28.7%), BMI <18.5 kg/m2 (23.1%), and a history of tuberculosis (5.6%) or were receiving tuberculosis treatment (8.2%) at ART initiation. In the routine VL arm, 407/409 (99.5%) received baseline VL (234,577 SD = 151,055 copies/ml). All participants received lamivudine; 49.8% started zidovudine followed by 38.4% stavudine and 11.8% tenofovir; and, 64.4% received nevirapine as nNRTI (35.6% efavirenz). CONCLUSIONS: A RCT can be enrolled successfully in rural, non-research, resource limited, district-level clinics in western Kenya. Many adults presenting for ART have advanced HIV/AIDS, emphasizing the importance of universal HIV testing and linkage-to-care campaigns. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01791556.

Successes and Challenges in an Integrated Tuberculosis/HIV Clinic in a Rural, Resource-Limited Setting: Experiences from Kericho, Kenya.

Objective. To describe TB/HIV clinic outcomes in a rural, Ministry of Health hospital. Design. Retrospective, secondary analyses. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression analyses evaluated baseline characteristics and outcomes. Results. Of 1,911 patients, 89.8% were adults aged 32.0 (±12.6) years with baseline CD4 = 243.3 (±271.0), 18.2% < 50 cells/mm(3). Pulmonary (84.8%, (32.2% smear positive)) exceeded extrapulmonary TB (15.2%). Over 5 years, treatment success rose from 40.0% to 74.6%, lost to follow-up dropped from 36.0% to 12.5%, and deaths fell from 20.0% to 5.4%. For patients starting ART after TB treatment, those with CD4 ≥ 50 cells/mm(3) were twice as likely to achieve treatment success (OR = 2.0, 95% CI = 1.3-3.1) compared to those with CD4 < 50 cells/mm(3). Patients initiating ART at/after 2 months were twice as likely to achieve treatment success (OR = 2.0, 95% CI = 1.3-3.3). Yearly, odds of treatment success improved by 20% (OR = 1.2, 95% CI = 1.0-1.5). Conclusions. An integrated TB/HIV clinic with acceptable outcomes is a feasible goal in resource-limited settings.

Influence of culture on contraceptive utilization among HIV-positive women in Brazil, Kenya, and South Africa.

Contraceptive choice and discontinuation are poorly understood among HIV-positive women, and HIV disease and culture may influence decisions. We assessed factors influencing contraceptive decision-making among HIV-positive women in three countries. This qualitative assessment of 108 HIV-positive women (36/site, selected by age and parity strata) was conducted in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Kericho, Kenya; and Soweto, South Africa. Freelist interviews assessed knowledge and attitudes towards contraception and were analyzed enumerating frequency and saliency of mentions. There was intersite consensus around list items but priority and themes varied. Site-specific factors influencing contraceptive choice were male partner wishes and fertility desire (Brazil), side-effects (South Africa), and impact on health and HIV progression (Kenya). Age, parity, and taking antiretroviral therapy (ART) impacted some themes. Contraceptive use among HIV-positive women is substantially influenced by culture and other factors. Counseling efforts should consider individual factors in method selection and offer method variety to accommodate changing needs.

Factors influencing contraceptive choice and discontinuation among HIV-positive women in Kericho, Kenya.

This study explored perceptions towards and utilization of contraception among HIV-positive, reproduction-age women in Kericho, Kenya, an area with high HIV and low contraceptive prevalence rates. Qualitative methods were used in three focus group discussions and 15 in-depth interviews to gather data from 46 HIV-positive women ages 18 to 45, purposively selected by age strata. Analysis was performed using ATLAS-ti (ATLAS-ti Center, Berlin). Most participants reported familiarity with modern contraceptives. Participants generally perceived that men opposed contraception. Some women indicated that their HIV status dictated contraceptive decisions, particularly with regard to abstinence. Women reported method discontinuation because of side effects, having met desired parity, and menstrual changes. Findings suggested that perceptions about side effects, opinions of the male partner, and HIV disease progression play important roles in contraceptive decisions. Counseling can dispel incorrect information and optimize contraceptive practice in this setting.

HIV-1 incidence rates and risk factors in agricultural workers and dependents in rural Kenya: 36-month follow-up of the Kericho HIV cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Incidence data from prospective cohort studies using rigorous laboratory methods are important in designing and evaluating HIV vaccine and therapeutic clinical trials and health care programs. We report 36-month HIV-1 incidence rates and demographic and psychosocial risks from the Kericho cohort in rural Kenya's southern Rift Valley Province. METHODS: Thirty-six month, prospective, closed, observational cohort study of adult plantation workers and dependents followed biannually. HIV-1 incidence rates per 100 person-years (py) were calculated, and Cox regression analyses were used to estimate hazards ratios (HR) associated with seroconversion. RESULTS: Two thousand four hundred volunteers (mean age +/- SD = 30.1 +/- 8.5 years; 36.5% women) participated. Twenty-nine new HIV cases were identified in year 1 of follow-up, which increased to cumulative totals of 49 and 63 cases in years 2 and 3, respectively. The corresponding 1-, 2-, and 3-year incidence rates were 1.41 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.95-2.02], 1.16 (95% CI = 0.86-1.54), and 1.00 (95% CI = 0.77-1.28) per 100 py. Risk factors associated with HIV seroconversion included the following: of the Luo tribe (HR = 3.31; 95% CI = 1.65-6.63), marriage more than once (HR = 2.83; 95% CI = 1.20-6.69), self-reported male circumcision (HR = 0.32; 95% CI = 0.17-0.60), history of sexually transmitted infection (HR = 2.40; 95% CI = 1.09-5.26), history of substance abuse during sex (HR = 2.44; 95% CI = 1.16-5.13), and history of transactional sex (HR = 3.30; 95% CI = 1.79-6.09). CONCLUSIONS: HIV-1 incidence rates were relatively low in adult plantation workers and dependents in rural Kenya. Cohorts including higher risk populations (eg, commercial sex workers) warrant consideration for regional HIV preventive vaccine trials. Even low incidence, well-described cohorts generate valuable epidemiological clinical trial data.

Factors influencing contraceptive choice and discontinuation among HIV-positive women in Kericho, Kenya

This study explored perceptions towards and utilization of contraception among HIV-positive, reproduction-age women in Kericho, Kenya, an area with high HIV and low contraceptive prevalence rates. Qualitative methods were used in three focus group discussions and 15 in-depth interviews to gather data from 46 HIV-positive women ages 18 to 45, purposively selected by age strata. Analysis was performed using ATLAS-ti (ATLAS-ti Center, Berlin). Most participants reported familiarity with modern contraceptives. Participants generally perceived that men opposed contraception. Some women indicated that their HIV status dictated contraceptive decisions, particularly with regard to abstinence. Women reported method discontinuation because of side effects, having met desired parity, and menstrual changes. Findings suggested that perceptions about side effects, opinions of the male partner, and HIV disease progression play important roles in contraceptive decisions. Counseling can dispel incorrect information and optimize contraceptive practice in this setting (Afr J Reprod Health 2010; 14[4]: 103-114)

Short communication: HIV type 1 genetic diversity among tea plantation workers in Kericho, Kenya.

In preparation for HIV-1 vaccine trials in Kenya, 2801 study volunteers, from a tea plantation in Kericho, were recruited as part of a prospective vaccine cohort development study. Cryopreserved plasma was available from 401 HIV-positive volunteers, and was the source of viral RNA for genotyping by the multiregion hybridization assay (MHA). Logistic regression was performed to determine association of risk factors and HIV-1 recombinant and dual infections. At baseline, HIV-1 subtype A was the dominant circulating pure subtype (56%), followed by subtype D (10%) and C (5%). Recombinant HIV-1 strains accounted for almost one-third of all infections (29%), with 7% infected with a dual strain of the HIV-1 variants described. A higher number of HIV-1 recombinant and dual infections was observed among volunteers who were 18-24 and 25-29 years of age, affiliated with the Luo tribe, had been married two or more times, reported not being circumcised, and had STI symptoms in the past 6 months. Adjusted odds ratios (AOR) significantly associated with HIV-1 recombinant and dual infection were age difference from current spouse (5-9 years; AOR = 2.5, 95% CI = 1.2-5.3 and > or = 10 years; AOR = 3.1, 95% CI = 1.5-6.4) and reported STI symptoms in the past 6 months (AOR = 4.8, 95% CI = 2.0-11.6), respectively. In conclusion, our results suggest that there is considerable heterogeneity with respect to HIV-1 subtype diversity in this population that should be considered in the planning for future vaccine trials in the region.

Reference ranges for the clinical laboratory derived from a rural population in Kericho, Kenya.

The conduct of Phase I/II HIV vaccine trials internationally necessitates the development of region-specific clinical reference ranges for trial enrollment and participant monitoring. A population based cohort of adults in Kericho, Kenya, a potential vaccine trial site, allowed development of clinical laboratory reference ranges. Lymphocyte immunophenotyping was performed on 1293 HIV seronegative study participants. Hematology and clinical chemistry were performed on up to 1541 cohort enrollees. The ratio of males to females was 1.9:1. Means, medians and 95% reference ranges were calculated and compared with those from other nations. The median CD4+ T cell count for the group was 810 cells/microl. There were significant gender differences for both red and white blood cell parameters. Kenyan subjects had lower median hemoglobin concentrations (9.5 g/dL; range 6.7-11.1) and neutrophil counts (1850 cells/microl; range 914-4715) compared to North Americans. Kenyan clinical chemistry reference ranges were comparable to those from the USA, with the exception of the upper limits for bilirubin and blood urea nitrogen, which were 2.3-fold higher and 1.5-fold lower, respectively. This study is the first to assess clinical reference ranges for a highland community in Kenya and highlights the need to define clinical laboratory ranges from the national community not only for clinical research but also care and treatment.

The protective effect of circumcision on HIV incidence in rural low-risk men circumcised predominantly by traditional circumcisers in Kenya: two-year follow-up of the Kericho HIV Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Three randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have demonstrated that male circumcision prevents female-to-male HIV transmission in sub-Saharan Africa. Data from prospective cohort studies are helpful in considering generalizability of RCT results to populations with unique epidemiologic/cultural characteristics. METHODS: Prospective observational cohort sub-analysis. A total of 1378 men were evaluated after 2 years of follow-up. Baseline sociodemographic and behavioral/HIV risk characteristics were compared between 270 uncircumcised and 1108 circumcised men. HIV incidence rates (per 100 person-years) were calculated, and Cox proportional hazards regression analyses estimated hazard rate ratios (HRs). RESULTS: Of the men included in this study, 80.4% were circumcised; 73.9% were circumcised by traditional circumcisers. Circumcision was associated with tribal affiliation, high school education, fewer marriages, and smaller age difference between spouses (P < 0.05). After 2 years of follow-up, there were 30 HIV incident cases (17 in circumcised and 13 in uncircumcised men). Two-year HIV incidence rates were 0.79 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.46 to 1.25) for circumcised men and 2.48 (95% CI: 1.33 to 4.21) for uncircumcised men corresponding to a HR = 0.31 (95% CI: 0.15 to 0.64). In one model controlling for sociodemographic factors, the HR increased and became non-significant (HR = 0.55; 95% CI: 0.20 to 1.49). CONCLUSIONS: Circumcision by traditional circumcisers offers protection from HIV infection in adult men in rural Kenya. Data from well-designed prospective cohort studies in populations with unique cultural characteristics can supplement RCT data in recommending public health policy.