ABSTRACT
Dysbindin-1, a protein that regulates aspects of early and late brain development, has been implicated in the pathobiology of schizophrenia. As the functional roles of the three major isoforms of dysbindin-1, (A, B, and C) remain unknown, we generated a novel mutant mouse, dys-1A-/-, with selective loss of dysbindin-1A and investigated schizophrenia-related phenotypes in both males and females. Loss of dysbindin-1A resulted in heightened initial exploration and disruption in subsequent habituation to a novel environment, together with heightened anxiety-related behavior in a stressful environment. Loss of dysbindin-1A was not associated with disruption of either long-term (olfactory) memory or spontaneous alternation behavior. However, dys-1A-/- showed enhancement in delay-dependent working memory under high levels of interference relative to controls, ie, impairment in sensitivity to the disruptive effect of such interference. These findings in dys-1A-/- provide the first evidence for differential functional roles for dysbindin-1A vs dysbindin-1C isoforms among phenotypes relevant to the pathobiology of schizophrenia. Future studies should investigate putative sex differences in these phenotypic effects.
Subject(s)
Attention/physiology , Behavior, Animal/physiology , Dysbindin/physiology , Memory, Short-Term/physiology , Schizophrenia/physiopathology , Animals , Disease Models, Animal , Female , Male , Memory, Long-Term/physiology , Mice , Mice, Transgenic , Olfactory Perception/physiology , Phenotype , Protein IsoformsABSTRACT
The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is inherent to immune responses. ROS are crucially involved in host defense against pathogens by promoting bacterial killing, but also as signaling agents coordinating the production of cytokines. Transient Receptor Potential Melastatin 2 (TRPM2) is a Ca(2+)-permeable channel gated via binding of ADP-ribose, a metabolite formed under conditions of cellular exposure to ROS. Here, we show that TRPM2-deficient mice are extremely susceptible to infection with Listeria monocytogenes (Lm), exhibiting an inefficient innate immune response. In a comparison with IFNγR-deficient mice, TRPM2(-/-) mice shared similar features of uncontrolled bacterial replication and reduced levels of inducible (i)NOS-expressing monocytes, but had intact IFNγ responsiveness. In contrast, we found that levels of cytokines IL-12 and IFNγ were diminished in TRPM2(-/-) mice following Lm infection, which correlated with their reduced innate activation. Moreover, TRPM2(-/-) mice displayed a higher degree of susceptibility than IL-12-unresponsive mice, and supplementation with recombinant IFNγ was sufficient to reverse the unrestrained bacterial growth and ultimately the lethal phenotype of Lm-infected TRPM2(-/-) mice. The severity of listeriosis we observed in TRPM2(-/-) mice has not been reported for any other ion channel. These findings establish an unsuspected role for ADP-ribose and ROS-mediated cation flux for innate immunity, opening up unique possibilities for immunomodulatory intervention through TRPM2.
Subject(s)
Immunity, Innate/physiology , Listeria monocytogenes/immunology , TRPM Cation Channels/immunology , Adjuvants, Immunologic/pharmacology , Animals , Cytokines/biosynthesis , Female , Immunity, Innate/drug effects , Immunity, Innate/genetics , Interferon-gamma/pharmacology , Interleukin-12/deficiency , Interleukin-12/genetics , Interleukin-12/immunology , Interleukin-12 Receptor beta 2 Subunit/deficiency , Interleukin-12 Receptor beta 2 Subunit/genetics , Interleukin-12 Receptor beta 2 Subunit/immunology , Listeria monocytogenes/pathogenicity , Listeriosis/immunology , Listeriosis/prevention & control , Macrophages/immunology , Male , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Knockout , Neutrophils/immunology , Receptors, Interferon/deficiency , Receptors, Interferon/genetics , Receptors, Interferon/immunology , Recombinant Proteins , TRPM Cation Channels/deficiency , TRPM Cation Channels/genetics , Interferon gamma ReceptorABSTRACT
It has been postulated that the G protein-coupled receptor, GPR55, is a third cannabinoid receptor. Given that the ligands at the CB(1) and CB(2) receptors are effective analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents, the role of GPR55 in hyperalgesia associated with inflammatory and neuropathic pain has been investigated. As there are no well-validated GPR55 tool compounds, a GPR55 knockout (GPR55(-/-)) mouse line was generated and fully backcrossed onto the C57BL/6 strain. General phenotypic analysis of GPR55(-/-) mice revealed no obvious primary differences, compared with wild-type (GPR55(+/+)) littermates. GPR55(-/-) mice were then tested in the models of adjuvant-induced inflammation and partial nerve ligation. Following intraplantar administration of Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA), inflammatory mechanical hyperalgesia was completely absent in GPR55(-/-) mice up to 14 days post-injection. Cytokine profiling experiments showed that at 14 days post-FCA injection there were increased levels of IL-4, IL-10, IFN gamma and GM-CSF in paws from the FCA-injected GPR55(-/-) mice when compared with the FCA-injected GPR55(+/+) mice. This suggests that GPR55 signalling can influence the regulation of certain cytokines and this may contribute to the lack of inflammatory mechanical hyperalgesia in the GPR55(-/-) mice. In the model of neuropathic hypersensitivity, GPR55(-/-) mice also failed to develop mechanical hyperalgesia up to 28 days post-ligation. These data clearly suggest that the manipulation of GPR55 may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of both inflammatory and neuropathic pain.
