FAM171B is a novel polyglutamine protein widely expressed in the mammalian brain.

Mutation in proteins containing polyglutamine (polyQ) tracts has been shown to underlie a number of severe human neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington's Disease and Spinocerebellar Ataxia. In this study, we identify and describe FAM171B as a novel polyQ protein containing fourteen consecutive glutamine residues in its National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) referenced sequence. Utilizing western blotting, in situ hybridization, and immunohistochemistry, we demonstrate that FAM171B is widely expressed in mouse brain with pronounced localization in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex. Furthermore, immunofluorescence experiments reveal that FAM171B predominantly localizes to vesicle-like structures in the cytoplasm of neurons. Finally, bioinformatic analysis suggests that FAM171B is robustly expressed in human brain, and (similar to other polyQ disease genes) its polyQ tract is polymorphic within the general human population. Thus, as a polyQ protein that is expressed in brain, FAM171B should be considered a candidate gene for an as yet molecularly uncharacterized neurodegenerative disease.

Deafness and loss of cochlear hair cells in the absence of thyroid hormone transporters Slc16a2 (Mct8) and Slc16a10 (Mct10).

Transmembrane proteins that mediate the cellular uptake or efflux of thyroid hormone potentially provide a key level of control over neurodevelopment. In humans, defects in one such protein, solute carrier SLC16A2 (MCT8) are associated with psychomotor retardation. Other proteins that transport the active form of thyroid hormone triiodothyronine (T3) or its precursor thyroxine (T4) have been identified in vitro but the wider significance of such transporters in vivo is unclear. The development of the auditory system requires thyroid hormone and the cochlea is a primary target tissue. We have proposed that the compartmental anatomy of the cochlea would necessitate transport mechanisms to convey blood-borne hormone to target tissues. We report hearing loss in mice with mutations in Slc16a2 and a related gene Slc16a10 (Mct10, Tat1). Deficiency of both transporters results in retarded development of the sensory epithelium similar to impairment caused by hypothyroidism, compounded with a progressive degeneration of cochlear hair cells and loss of endocochlear potential. Administration of T3 largely restores the development of the sensory epithelium and limited auditory function, indicating the T3-sensitivity of defects in the sensory epithelium. The results indicate a necessity for thyroid hormone transporters in cochlear development and function.

American Thyroid Association Guide to investigating thyroid hormone economy and action in rodent and cell models.

BACKGROUND: An in-depth understanding of the fundamental principles that regulate thyroid hormone homeostasis is critical for the development of new diagnostic and treatment approaches for patients with thyroid disease. SUMMARY: Important clinical practices in use today for the treatment of patients with hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, or thyroid cancer are the result of laboratory discoveries made by scientists investigating the most basic aspects of thyroid structure and molecular biology. In this document, a panel of experts commissioned by the American Thyroid Association makes a series of recommendations related to the study of thyroid hormone economy and action. These recommendations are intended to promote standardization of study design, which should in turn increase the comparability and reproducibility of experimental findings. CONCLUSIONS: It is expected that adherence to these recommendations by investigators in the field will facilitate progress towards a better understanding of the thyroid gland and thyroid hormone dependent processes.

Disruption of Ttll5/stamp gene (tubulin tyrosine ligase-like protein 5/SRC-1 and TIF2-associated modulatory protein gene) in male mice causes sperm malformation and infertility.

TTLL5/STAMP (tubulin tyrosine ligase-like family member 5) has multiple activities in cells. TTLL5 is one of 13 TTLLs, has polyglutamylation activity, augments the activity of p160 coactivators (SRC-1 and TIF2) in glucocorticoid receptor-regulated gene induction and repression, and displays steroid-independent growth activity with several cell types. To examine TTLL5/STAMP functions in whole animals, mice were prepared with an internal deletion that eliminated several activities of the Stamp gene. This mutation causes both reduced levels of STAMP mRNA and C-terminal truncation of STAMP protein. Homozygous targeted mutant (Stamp(tm/tm)) mice appear normal except for marked decreases in male fertility associated with defects in progressive sperm motility. Abnormal axonemal structures with loss of tubulin doublets occur in most Stamp(tm/tm) sperm tails in conjunction with substantial reduction in α-tubulin polyglutamylation, which closely correlates with the reduction in mutant STAMP mRNA. The axonemes in other structures appear unaffected. There is no obvious change in the organs for sperm development of WT versus Stamp(tm/tm) males despite the levels of WT STAMP mRNA in testes being 20-fold higher than in any other organ examined. This defect in male fertility is unrelated to other Ttll genes or 24 genes previously identified as important for sperm function. Thus, STAMP appears to participate in a unique, tissue-selective TTLL-mediated pathway for α-tubulin polyglutamylation that is required for sperm maturation and motility and may be relevant for male fertility.

Cerebellar abnormalities in mice lacking type 3 deiodinase and partial reversal of phenotype by deletion of thyroid hormone receptor α1.

Thyroid hormone serves many functions throughout brain development, but the mechanisms that control the timing of its actions in specific brain regions are poorly understood. In the cerebellum, thyroid hormone controls formation of the transient external germinal layer, which contains proliferative granule cell precursors, subsequent granule cell migration, and cerebellar foliation. We report that the thyroid hormone-inactivating type 3 deiodinase (encoded by Dio3) is expressed in the mouse cerebellum at embryonic and neonatal stages, suggesting a need to protect cerebellar tissues from premature stimulation by thyroid hormone. Dio3(-/-) mice displayed reduced foliation, accelerated disappearance of the external germinal layer, and premature expansion of the molecular layer at juvenile ages. Furthermore, Dio3(-/-) mice exhibited locomotor behavioral abnormalities and impaired ability in descending a vertical pole. To ascertain that these phenotypes resulted from inappropriate exposure to thyroid hormone, thyroid hormone receptor α1 (TRα1) was removed from Dio3(-/-) mice, which substantially corrected the cerebellar and behavioral phenotypes. Deletion of TRα1 did not correct the previously reported small thyroid gland or deafness in Dio3(-/-) mice, indicating that Dio3 controls the activation of specific receptor isoforms in different tissues. These findings suggest that type 3 deiodinase constrains the timing of thyroid hormone action during cerebellar development.

Developmental and cell-specific expression of thyroid hormone transporters in the mouse cochlea.

Thyroid hormone is essential for the development of the cochlea and auditory function. Cochlear response tissues, which express thyroid hormone receptor ß (encoded by Thrb), include the greater epithelial ridge and sensory epithelium residing inside the bony labyrinth. However, these response tissues lack direct blood flow, implying that mechanisms exist to shuttle hormone from the circulation to target tissues. Therefore, we investigated expression of candidate thyroid hormone transporters L-type amino acid transporter 1 (Lat1), monocarboxylate transporter (Mct)8, Mct10, and organic anion transporting polypeptide 1c1 (Oatp1c1) in mouse cochlear development by in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence analysis. L-type amino acid transporter 1 localized to cochlear blood vessels and transiently to sensory hair cells. Mct8 localized to the greater epithelial ridge, tympanic border cells underlying the sensory epithelium, spiral ligament fibrocytes, and spiral ganglion neurons, partly overlapping with the Thrb expression pattern. Mct10 was detected in a highly restricted pattern in the outer sulcus epithelium and weakly in tympanic border cells and hair cells. Organic anion transporting polypeptide 1c1 localized primarily to fibrocytes in vascularized tissues of the spiral limbus and spiral ligament and to tympanic border cells. Investigation of hypothyroid Tshr(-/-) mice showed that transporter expression was delayed consistent with retardation of cochlear tissue maturation but not with compensatory responses to hypothyroidism. The results demonstrate specific expression of thyroid hormone transporters in the cochlea and suggest that a network of thyroid hormone transport underlies cochlear development.

Two transcription factors can direct three photoreceptor outcomes from rod precursor cells in mouse retinal development.

The typical mammalian visual system is based upon three photoreceptor types: rods for dim light vision and two types of cones (M and S) for color vision in daylight. However, the process that generates photoreceptor diversity and the cell type in which diversity arises remain unclear. Mice deleted for thyroid hormone receptor ß2 (TRß2) and neural retina leucine zipper factor (NRL) lack M cones and rods, respectively, but gain S cones. We therefore tested the hypothesis that NRL and TRß2 direct a common precursor to a rod, M cone, or S cone outcome using Nrl(b2/b2) "knock-in" mice that express TRß2 instead of NRL from the endogenous Nrl gene. Nrl(b2/b2) mice lacked rods and produced excess M cones in contrast to the excess S cones in Nrl(-/-) mice. Notably, the presence of both factors yielded rods in Nrl(+/b2) mice. The results demonstrate innate plasticity in postmitotic rod precursors that allows these cells to form three functional photoreceptor types in response to NRL or TRß2. We also detected precursor cells in normal embryonic retina that transiently coexpressed Nrl and TRß2, suggesting that some precursors may originate in a plastic state. The plasticity of the precursors revealed in Nrl(b2/b2) mice suggests that a two-step transcriptional switch can direct three photoreceptor fates: first, rod versus cone identity dictated by NRL, and second, if NRL fails to act, M versus S cone identity dictated by TRß2.

Developmental delays consistent with cochlear hypothyroidism contribute to failure to develop hearing in mice lacking Slc26a4/pendrin expression.

Mutations of SLC26A4 cause an enlarged vestibular aqueduct, nonsyndromic deafness, and deafness as part of Pendred syndrome. SLC26A4 encodes pendrin, an anion exchanger located in the cochlea, thyroid, and kidney. The goal of the present study was to determine whether developmental delays, possibly mediated by systemic or local hypothyroidism, contribute to the failure to develop hearing in mice lacking Slc26a4 (Slc26a4(-/-)). We evaluated thyroid function by voltage and pH measurements, by array-assisted gene expression analysis, and by determination of plasma thyroxine levels. Cochlear development was evaluated for signs of hypothyroidism by microscopy, in situ hybridization, and quantitative RT-PCR. No differences in plasma thyroxine levels were found in Slc26a4(-/-) and sex-matched Slc26a4(+/-) littermates between postnatal day 5 (P5) and P90. In adult Slc26a4(-/-) mice, the transepithelial potential and the pH of thyroid follicles were reduced. No differences in the expression of genes that participate in thyroid hormone synthesis or ion transport were observed at P15, when plasma thyroxine levels peaked. Scala media of the cochlea was 10-fold enlarged, bulging into and thereby displacing fibrocytes, which express Dio2 to generate a cochlear thyroid hormone peak at P7. Cochlear development, including tunnel opening, arrival of efferent innervation at outer hair cells, endochondral and intramembraneous ossification, and developmental changes in the expression of Dio2, Dio3, and Tectb were delayed by 1-4 days. These data suggest that pendrin functions as a HCO3- transporter in the thyroid, that Slc26a4(-/-) mice are systemically euthyroid, and that delays in cochlear development, possibly due to local hypothyroidism, lead to the failure to develop hearing.

The balance between oligodendrocyte and astrocyte production in major white matter tracts is linearly related to serum total thyroxine.

Thyroid hormone (TH) may control the ratio of oligodendrocytes to astrocytes in white matter by acting on a common precursor of these two cell types. If so, then TH should produce an equal but opposite effect on the density of these two cells types across all TH levels. To test this, we induced graded TH insufficiency by treating pregnant rats with increasing doses of propylthiouracil. Propylthiouracil induced a dose-dependent decrease in serum T(4) in postnatal d 15 pups, a dose-dependent decrease in the density of MAG-positive oligodendrocytes, and an equal increase in the density of glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive astrocytes in both the corpus callosum and anterior commissure. Linear regression analyses demonstrated a strong correlation between glial densities and serum T(4); this correlation was positive for astrocytes and negative for oligodendrocytes. Surprisingly, oligodendrocyte density in the corpus callosum was more sensitive to changes in TH than in the anterior commissure, as indicated by the slope of the regressions. Furthermore, we measured an overall reduction in the cellular density that was independent of changes in myelin-associated glycoprotein and glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive cells. These data strongly support the interpretation that TH controls the balance of production of oligodendrocytes and astrocytes in major white matter tracts of the developing brain by acting on a common precursor of these cell types. Moreover, these findings indicate that major white matter tracts may differ in their sensitivity to TH insufficiency.

Polychlorinated biphenyls 105 and 118 form thyroid hormone receptor agonists after cytochrome P4501A1 activation in rat pituitary GH3 cells.

BACKGROUND: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) may interfere with thyroid hormone (TH) signaling by reducing TH levels in blood, by exerting direct effects on TH receptors (TRs), or both. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to identify individual PCBs that directly affect TH signaling by acting on the TR. METHODS: We administered a mixture of six PCB congeners based on their ortho substitution pattern, including PCBs 77 and 126 (non-ortho), PCBs 105 and 118 (mono-ortho), and PCBs 138 and 153 (di-ortho), to pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats from gestational days (G) 6 to 16. This mixture, or various combinations of the components, was also evaluated in a transient transfection system using GH3 cells. RESULTS: The mixture reduced serum TH levels in pregnant rats on G16 but simultaneously up-regulated the expression of malic enzyme in liver. It also functioned as a TR agonist in vitro; however, none of the individual PCB congeners comprising this mixture were active in this system. Using the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) antagonist alpha-naphthoflavone, and the cytochrome P450 (CYP)1A1 antagonist ellipticine, we show that the effect of the mixture on the thyroid hormone response element required AhR and CYP1A1. CONCLUSIONS: We propose that PCB 126 induces CYP1A1 through the AhR in GH3 cells, and that CYP1A1 activates PCB 105 and/or 118 to a form a compound that acts as a TR agonist. These data suggest that some tissues may be especially vulnerable to PCBs interfering directly with TH signaling due to their capacity to express CYP1A1 in response to coplanar PCBs (or other dioxin-like molecules) if sufficient mono-ortho PCBs are present.

Photoinactivation of Mycobacteria in vitro and in a new murine model of localized Mycobacterium bovis BCG-induced granulomatous infection.

Treatment of tuberculosis is currently hindered by prolonged antibiotic regimens and the emergence of significant drug resistance. Alternatives and adjuncts to standard antimycobacterial agents are needed. We propose that a direct attack utilizing photosensitizers and light-based treatments may be effective in curtailing Mycobacterium tuberculosis in discrete anatomical sites in the most infectious phase of pulmonary tuberculosis. To demonstrate experimental proof of principle, we have applied established photodynamic therapy (PDT) technology to in vitro cultures and an in vivo mouse model using Mycobacterium bovis BCG. We report here in vitro and in vivo PDT efficacy studies and the use of a three-dimensional collagen gel as a delivery vehicle for BCG, subcutaneously inserted, to induce specifically localized granuloma-like lesions in mice. When a benzoporphyrin derivative was utilized as the photosensitive agent, exposure to light killed extracellular and intracellular BCG in significant numbers. Collagen scaffolds containing BCG inserted in situ in BALB/c mice for 3 months mimicked granulomatous lesions and demonstrated a marked cellular infiltration upon histological examination, with evidence of caseating necrosis and fibrous capsule formation. When 10(5) BCG were present in the in vivo-induced granulomas, a significant reduction in viable mycobacterial cells was demonstrated in PDT-treated granulomas compared to those of controls. We conclude that PDT has potential in the treatment of localized mycobacterial infections, such as pulmonary granulomas and cavities.

Polychlorinated biphenyls exert selective effects on cellular composition of white matter in a manner inconsistent with thyroid hormone insufficiency.

Developmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) is associated with a variety of cognitive deficits in humans, and recent evidence implicates white matter development as a potential target of PCBs. Because PCBs are suspected of interfering with thyroid hormone (TH) signaling in the developing brain, and because TH is important in oligodendrocyte development, we tested the hypothesis that PCB exposure affects the development of white matter tracts by disrupting TH signaling. Pregnant Sprague Dawley rats were exposed to the PCB mixture Aroclor 1254 (5 mg/kg), with or without cotreatment of goitrogens from gestational d 7 until postnatal d 15. Treatment effects on white matter development were determined by separately measuring the cellular density and proportion of myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG)-positive, O4-positive, and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive cells in the genu of the corpus callosum (CC) and in the anterior commissure (AC). Hypothyroidism decreased the total cell density of the CC and AC as measured by 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride (DAPI) staining and produced a disproportionate decrease in MAG-positive oligodendrocyte density with a simultaneous increase in GFAP-positive astrocyte density. These data indicate that hypothyroidism reduces cellular density of CC and AC and fosters astrocyte development at the expense of oligodendrocyte density. In contrast, PCB exposure significantly reduced total cell density but did not disproportionately alter MAG-positive oligodendrocyte density or change the ratio of MAG-positive oligodendrocytes to GFAP-positive astrocytes. Thus, PCB exposure mimicked some, but not all, of the effects of hypothyroidism on white matter composition.