College Women's Perceptions of a Friend-Based Intervention to Prevent Alcohol-Involved Sexual Assault.

Sexual assault (SA), particularly alcohol-involved SA, remains prevalent among college women. Because SA often begins in social contexts, bystander intervention has become a popular approach to prevention. Bystander interventions train individuals to intervene on behalf of others, including strangers, despite research indicating that intervention is more likely to occur when the bystander has a relationship with the target. Shifting the focus to friends as potential bystanders capitalizes on the qualities of relationship and responsibility that facilitate intervention. College women (N = 35) participated in focus groups (N = 8) during which they viewed a video prototype of a friend-based motivational interviewing (FMI) intervention session conducted with a friend dyad and provided feedback about the relevance and feasibility of using such an approach to reduce SA among friends who drink together in social settings. Content analysis of focus group transcripts yielded three themes: a) Friends as Natural Bystanders; b) The Role of Alcohol in Intervention, and c) Receptivity to FMI intervention. Women indicated that they feel responsible for keeping their friends safe, and that this sense of responsibility facilitates helping behaviors. Women also described ways through which alcohol intoxication can affect helping behavior. Women expressed enthusiasm for the FMI intervention approach and identified its emphasis on friendship and flexible approaches to personal safety as strengths. Findings highlight the promise of FMI intervention approaches that capitalize on the strengths of women's friendship to create safety goals that align with participants' values and overcome barriers to intervention, including alcohol intoxication.

Repeatability and heritability of inhibitory control performance in wild toutouwai (Petroica longipes).

Despite increasing interest in the evolution of inhibitory control, few studies have examined the validity of widespread testing paradigms, the long-term repeatability and the heritability of this cognitive ability in the wild. We investigated these aspects in the inhibitory control performance of wild toutouwai (North Island robin; Petroica longipes), using detour and reversal learning tasks. We assessed convergent validity by testing whether individual performance correlated across detour and reversal learning tasks. We then further evaluated task validity by examining whether individual performance was confounded by non-cognitive factors. We tested a subset of subjects twice in each task to estimate the repeatability of performance across a 1-year period. Finally, we used a population pedigree to estimate the heritability of task performance. Individual performance was unrelated across detour and reversal learning tasks, indicating that these measured different cognitive abilities. Task performance was not influenced by body condition, boldness or prior experience, and showed moderate between-year repeatability. Yet despite this individual consistency, we found no evidence that task performance was heritable. Our findings suggest that detour and reversal learning tasks measure consistent individual differences in distinct forms of inhibitory control in toutouwai, but this variation may be environmentally determined rather than genetic.

Primary Care Treatment Integrating Motivation and Exposure for PTSD Symptoms and Hazardous Alcohol Use: A Case Series.

Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and hazardous alcohol use are highly comorbid. Research on integrated interventions to address PTSD symptoms and hazardous alcohol use concurrently has demonstrated efficacy, yet integrated treatments are underutilized. Both patient (e.g., stigma, scheduling/logistics) and clinician (e.g., concern about symptom exacerbation and/or treatment dropout) barriers may impede utilization of integrated interventions among those with comorbid PTSD symptoms and hazardous alcohol use. Primary care behavioral health models (PCBH), in which embedded behavioral health providers deliver treatment to individuals with mild or moderate behavioral health symptoms in primary care, may help address treatment barriers by offering accessible behavioral health interventions in a destigmatizing setting. This paper presents two case examples from a randomized controlled trial testing the efficacy of an integrated intervention for PTSD symptoms and hazardous alcohol use developed for and delivered in primary care. Outcome data and session-by-session content for two participants are included, along with discussion of barriers encountered during the course of treatment. Clinician-suggested strategies for navigating barriers to facilitate utilization of integrated interventions for PTSD symptoms and hazardous alcohol use are also discussed.

Effectiveness of Sexual Assault Protective Behaviors on the Daily Level: The Roles of Intoxication and Executive Control.

Young adult women engage in a variety of behaviors aimed at reducing their risk of sexual assault (SA), termed sexual assault protective behavioral strategies (SA-PBS), yet the evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of SA-PBS in reducing SA risk has been relatively sparse and inconclusive. The current study examined the use of SA-PBS, the factor structure of a diverse array of SA-PBS, and their association with the occurrence of SA. The influence of state- and trait-level moderators on the association between SA-PBS and SA events was also examined. In a sample of community young adult women (N = 174), use of SA-PBS and the occurrence of same night SA were examined with a longitudinal burst design over 1 year that spanned 27 weekend nights when women were out in social contexts. We also examined the influence of state intoxication of alcohol use and trait effortful control (EC) on the relationship between SA-PBS factors and SA events. We found that SA-PBS cluster into two factors representing Proactive and Reactive SA-PBS. While Proactive PBS was not associated with SA, Reactive PBS were positively associated with a SA event occurring. There was no evidence in the current sample to support a moderating role of intoxication on the relationship between Proactive or Reactive PBS and SA. However, there was a marginal interaction effect found for the moderating role of EC on the relationship between Proactive PBS and SA. Our findings identify important differences in SA-PBS, and perhaps most importantly, suggest that not all strategies are created equal with respect to reducing risk.

The role of effortful control in mitigating negative consequences associated with emerging adult drinking.

BACKGROUND: Identifying factors that protect against alcohol-related negative consequences associated with emerging adult drinking is a critical public health issue. It has been proposed that high levels of self-regulation moderate risks associated with drinking, decreasing alcohol-related negative consequences. Past research testing this possibility is limited by a lack of advanced methodology for testing moderation and failure to consider facets of self-regulation. This study addressed these limitations. METHODS: Three hundred fifty-four community emerging adults (56% female; predominantly non-Hispanic Caucasian (83%) or African American (9%)) were assessed annually for 3 years. Moderational hypotheses were tested using multilevel models and the Johnson-Neyman technique was used to examine simple slopes. Data were organized such that repeated measures (level 1) were nested within participants (level 2) to test cross-sectional associations. Self-regulation was operationalized as effortful control and its facets (attentional, inhibitory, and activation control). RESULTS: We found evidence of moderation. The association between alcohol use during a heavy drinking week and consequences weakened as effortful control increased. This pattern was supported for two facets (attentional and activation control), but not for inhibitory control. Regions of significance results revealed that this protective effect was only evident at very high levels of self-regulation. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide some evidence that very high levels of attentional and activation control protect against alcohol-related negative consequences associated with drinking. Emerging adults who are very high in attentional and activation control are likely better able to control their attention and engage in goal-directed behavior, like leaving a party at a reasonable hour, or attending school and/or work when experiencing the punishing effects of a hangover. Results emphasize the importance of distinguishing facets of self-regulation when testing self-regulation models.

A systematic review of animal personality in conservation science.

Although animal personality research may have applied uses, this suggestion has yet to be evaluated by assessing empirical studies examining animal personality and conservation. To address this knowledge gap, we performed a systematic review of the peer-reviewed literature relating to conservation science and animal personality. Criteria for inclusion in our review included access to full text, primary research articles, and relevant animal conservation or personality focus (i.e., not human personality studies). Ninety-two articles met these criteria. We summarized the conservation contexts, testing procedures (including species and sample size), analytical approach, claimed personality traits (activity, aggression, boldness, exploration, and sociability), and each report's key findings and conservation-focused suggestions. Although providing evidence for repeatability in behavior is crucial for personality studies, repeatability quantification was implemented in only half of the reports. Nonetheless, each of the 5 personality traits were investigated to some extent in a range of conservations contexts. The most robust studies in the field showed variance in how personality relates to other ecologically important variables across species and contexts. Moreover, many studies were first attempts at using personality for conservation purposes in a given study system. Overall, it appears personality is not yet a fully realized tool for conservation. To apply personality research to conservation problems, we suggest researchers think about where individual differences in behavior may affect conservation outcomes in their system, assess where there are opportunities for repeated measures, and follow the most current methodological guides on quantifying personality.

Aunque la investigación sobre la personalidad animal puede tener usos aplicados, esta propuesta aún no ha sido evaluada mediante el análisis de estudios empíricos que examinan la personalidad animal y la conservación. Realizamos una revisión sistemática de la literatura revisada por pares relacionada con las ciencias de la conservación y la personalidad animal para abordar este vacío en el conocimiento. Los criterios para la inclusión dentro de nuestra revisión incluyen el acceso al texto completo, artículos de investigación primaria y un enfoque relevante en la conservación animal o en la personalidad (es decir, no estudios sobre la personalidad humana). Noventa y dos artículos cumplieron con estos criterios y de ellos resumimos los contextos de conservación, procedimientos de análisis (incluyendo el tamaño de la muestra y de la especie), estrategia analítica, características declaradas de la personalidad (actividad, agresión, audacia, exploración y sociabilidad) y los hallazgos más importantes de cada reporte y sus sugerencias enfocadas en la conservación. Aunque proporcionar evidencias para la repetitividad en el comportamiento es crucial para los estudios de personalidad, la cuantificación de la repetitividad sólo se implementó en la mitad de los reportes. Sin embargo, cada una de las cinco características de la personalidad se investigaron hasta cierto punto dentro de una gama de contextos de la conservación. Los estudios más sólidos en el campo mostraron varianza en cómo la personalidad se relaciona con otras variables de importancia ecológica a través de las especies y los contextos. Además, muchos estudios fueron los primeros intentos del uso de la personalidad con propósitos de conservación en un sistema dado de estudios. En general, parece que la personalidad todavía no es una herramienta completamente realizada para la conservación. Para poder aplicar la investigación sobre la personalidad a los problemas de conservación, sugerimos que los investigadores piensen en dónde pueden afectar las diferencias individuales en el comportamiento a los resultados de la conservación dentro de su sistema, evalúen en dónde hay oportunidades para repetir medidas y sigan las guías metodológicas más actuales sobre la cuantificación de la personalidad.

Coping Flexibility and Alcohol-Related Outcomes: Examining Coping Motives as Mediators.

Background: Coping has been implicated in the etiology and treatment of problem drinking. Traditional, static measurement of coping styles (e.g., approach, avoidance, social support) may fail to capture how adaptive a given coping style may be. Coping flexibility is an emerging construct, associated with psychological health, and one that may shed light on coping's role in drinking risk. Coping flexibility includes (1) discontinuation of an ineffective coping strategy ("Discontinuation") and (2) production of an alternative strategy ("Implementation"). This study is the first to our knowledge to examine its association to drinking outcomes. Further, because coping deficits are theorized to lead to drinking through coping motives, we also examined mediated pathways from coping flexibility to alcohol outcomes via coping motives. Methods: College students (N = 528) completed an online assessment. Data were analyzed using path analysis. Control variables included sex and coping styles. Results: In path analytic models, Implementation was negatively associated with alcohol use and, indirectly via coping motives, negatively associated with alcohol consequences. The direct effect on alcohol use remained when controlling for coping styles and sex, but the mediational pathway was no longer significant. Conclusions: This study provides some evidence for the protective role of coping flexibility in alcohol use behavior, which may have implications for how best to address coping skills in alcohol interventions. The direct effect of Implementation on drinking suggests that there may be utility in teaching clients a flexible approach to coping in treatment. Replication, particularly with longitudinal designs, is needed.

Social Goal Orientation Differentially Influences Exposure to Interpersonal and Noninterpersonal Trauma.

Emerging adults are at an increased risk for trauma exposure, both interpersonal and non-interpersonal, which often occurs within a social context. How an individual interacts with this context may heighten or buffer against their risk for trauma. Social goal orientation represents individual differences that characterize how an individual navigates their social environment. These orientations fall along the two interacting dimensions, Agency and Communion. In a community sample (N=274; 55% female, average age = 18.9) of young adults, we sought to examine the role that these two types of social goals, both uniquely and in interaction with one another, may play in interpersonal and non-interpersonal trauma risk. Because men and women are at differential risk for trauma, we also examined the impact of gender on these associations. Findings revealed that social goal orientations are linked to trauma exposure in ways that differ depending on the type of trauma, interpersonal or non-interpersonal. Moreover, these processes differed for men and women. Whereas a high Communal Orientation was associated with decreased exposure to all trauma, for both women and men, Agentic Orientation was associated with an increased number of interpersonal and non-interpersonal trauma. For men, agency and communion interacted, suggesting that the extent to which an agentic orientation may be risky or protective for interpersonal trauma depends strongly on communal orientation. These findings provided initial evidence for the role social goal orientation may play as a risk or protective factor for trauma exposure.

Animal tool use: Many tools make light work for wild parrots.

Tool set use is rare in the animal kingdom. Previously, only primates were known to use multiple tools with different functions to achieve a single goal. New research now reveals the convergent evolution of tool set use in wild parrots.

The differential effects of verbal sexual coercion and forcible sexual assault on alcohol use and consequence trajectories in the first year of college.

OBJECTIVE: Verbal sexual coercion (VSC) is the most prevalent and pervasive form of sexual victimization that women experience, yet the long-term harmful effects of this type of experience are unknown. The current study examined the effects of verbal sexual coercion versus forcible sexual assault (FSA) on alcohol use and alcohol consequences, two deleterious outcomes that have been linked to sexual victimization. METHOD: In a sample of college women (N = 649), lifetime history of VSC and FSA were examined as predictors of trajectories of alcohol outcomes with latent growth models. Participants were assessed at six timepoints over their first year of college, a critical transition period of increased risk for both alcohol use and trauma exposure. We also examined the influence of victimization characteristics, such as relationship to the perpetrator and revictimization experiences in these associations. RESULTS: VSC experiences were predictive of higher levels of alcohol use and alcohol-related consequences (i.e., intercept). This risk was sustained throughout the first year of college. VSC experiences did not predict changes (i.e., slope) in alcohol outcomes over this time. In contrast, FSA was not predictive of either initial level or change in alcohol use and consequences over time. CONCLUSION: Findings highlight the importance of distinguishing among types of coercive experiences, as they show unique associations with later harmful outcomes. Verbal sexual coercion, common in the lives of young women but often overlooked in the extant literature, is associated with substantial negative impact during the first year of college. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Clinical Instructors' Experiences Working with and Assessing Students Who Perform below Expectations in Physical Therapy Clinical Internships.

Purpose: Clinical education is an integral component of the curriculum of all physical therapy (PT) entry-to-practice programmes in Canada. The literature indicates that working with and assessing students performing below expectations (SPBE) can be procedurally and emotionally difficult. Our study aimed to explore the experiences of clinical instructors (CIs) and the decision-making process involved when supervising SPBE in PT. Method: A total of 19 in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with CIs, transcribed, and coded using qualitative thematic analysis. Results: Four factors appeared to be important for CIs when they were deciding how to assess SPBE: (1) features of student performance, (2) factors related to the CIs, (3) academic and clinical facility influencers, and (4) strategies and available resources. Concerns about safety and professional behaviour, a student's clinical reasoning skills, and a lack of progression were key factors that CIs considered in recommending a final grade. CIs were more likely to recommend a failing grade if there was a series of repeated incidents rather than an isolated incident. Conclusions: We make several recommendations for the student, CI, and facilities to consider to better support and facilitate the process of working with SPBE in PT clinical education.

Objectif : la formation clinique fait partie intégrante des tous les programmes d'accès à la pratique en physiothérapie au Canada. Selon les publications, il peut être difficile sur le plan technique et affectif de travailler avec des étudiants dont le rendement est inférieur aux attentes (ÉRIA) et de les évaluer. La présente étude visait à explorer les expériences des moniteurs cliniques (MC) et les processus décisionnels en cause lors de la supervision d'ÉRIA en physiothérapie. Méthodologie : Au total, les chercheurs ont procédé à 19 entrevues semi-structurées approfondies avec des MC, qu'ils ont transcrites et codées au moyen d'une analyse thématique qualitative. Résultats : quatre facteurs semblent importants pour les MC lorsqu'ils décident comment évaluer les ÉRIA : 1) caractéristiques du rendement des étudiants, 2) facteurs liés aux MC, 3) influenceurs de l'établissement universitaire et clinique et 4) stratégies et ressources disponibles. Les inquiétudes quant à la sécurité et au comportement professionnel, les capacités de raisonnement clinique de l'étudiant et le manque de progression étaient des facteurs clés pour les MC au moment de recommander une note finale. Ceux-ci étaient plus susceptibles de recommander une note d'échec devant une série d'incidents répétés que devant un incident isolé. Conclusions : les chercheurs font plusieurs recommandations pour les étudiants, les MC et les établissements afin de mieux soutenir et de faciliter le processus de travail avec les ÉRIA dans le cadre de la formation clinique en physiothérapie.

Memory Performance Influences Male Reproductive Success in a Wild Bird.

Despite decades of comparative research, how selection shapes the evolution of cognitive traits remains poorly understood [1-3]. Several lines of evidence suggest that natural selection acts on spatial memory in food-caching species [3-6]. However, a link between reproductive fitness and spatial memory ability has yet to be demonstrated in any caching species [1, 3, 6]. Here, we show that memory performance influences reproductive success differentially for males and females in a caching songbird, the New Zealand robin (Petroica longipes). Males' memory performance in a spatial task during winter influenced their subsequent breeding success; individuals with more accurate performance produced more fledglings and independent offspring per nesting attempt. Males with superior memory performance also provided an increased proportion of large prey items to chicks in the nest and spent less time flying while foraging and provisioning. No such effects were found for females. Previous research reveals that trade-offs may constrain selection and act to maintain variation in cognitive traits [7]. The gender dimorphism in the reproductive benefits of robin memory performance suggests an additional role for divergent selection between the sexes in constraining runaway selection on male memory ability [8], ultimately maintaining variation in this cognitive trait.

How does cognition shape social relationships?

The requirements of living in social groups, and forming and maintaining social relationships are hypothesized to be one of the major drivers behind the evolution of cognitive abilities. Most empirical studies investigating the relationships between sociality and cognition compare cognitive performance between species living in systems that differ in social complexity. In this review, we ask whether and how individuals benefit from cognitive skills in their social interactions. Cognitive abilities, such as perception, attention, learning, memory, and inhibitory control, aid in forming and maintaining social relationships. We investigate whether there is evidence that individual variation in these abilities influences individual variation in social relationships. We then consider the evolutionary consequences of the interaction between sociality and cognitive ability to address whether bi-directional relationships exist between the two, such that cognition can both shape and be shaped by social interactions and the social environment. In doing so, we suggest that social network analysis is emerging as a powerful tool that can be used to test for directional causal relationships between sociality and cognition. Overall, our review highlights the importance of investigating individual variation in cognition to understand how it shapes the patterns of social relationships.This article is part of the theme issue 'Causes and consequences of individual differences in cognitive abilities'.

The ontogeny of food-caching behaviour in New Zealand robins (Petroica longipes).

Hoarding or caching behaviour is a widely-used paradigm for examining a range of cognitive processes in birds, such as social cognition and spatial memory. However, much is still unknown about how caching develops in young birds, especially in the wild. Studying the ontogeny of caching in the wild will help researchers to identify the mechanisms that shape this advantageous foraging strategy. We examined the ontogeny of food caching behaviour in a wild New Zealand passerine, the North Island robin (Petroica longipes). For 12-weeks following fledging, we observed 34 juveniles to examine the development of caching and cache retrieval. Additionally, we compared the caching behaviour of juveniles at 12 weeks post-fledging to 35 adult robins to determine whether juveniles had developed adult-like caching behaviour by this age. Juveniles began caching mealworms shortly after achieving foraging independency. Multivariate analyses revealed that caching rate increased and handling time decreased with increasing age. Juveniles spontaneously began retrieving caches as soon as they had begun to cache and their retrieval rates then remained constant throughout their ensuing development. Likewise, the number of sites used by juveniles did not change with age. Juvenile sex, caregiver sex and the duration of post-fledging parental care did not influence the development of caching, cache retrieval, the number of cache sites used and the time juveniles spent handling mealworms. At 12 weeks post-fledging, juveniles demonstrated levels of caching, cache retrieval and cache site usage that were comparable to adults. However, juvenile prey handling time was still longer than adults. The spontaneous emergence of cache retrieval and the consistency in the number of cache sites used throughout development suggests that these aspects of caching in North Island robins are likely to be innate, but that age and experience have an important role in the development of adult caching behaviours.

Cognitive test batteries in animal cognition research: evaluating the past, present and future of comparative psychometrics.

For the past two decades, behavioural ecologists have documented consistent individual differences in behavioural traits within species and found evidence for animal "personality". It is only relatively recently, however, that increasing numbers of researchers have begun to investigate individual differences in cognitive ability within species. It has been suggested that cognitive test batteries may provide an ideal tool for this growing research endeavour. In fact, cognitive test batteries have now been used to examine the causes, consequences and underlying structure of cognitive performance within and between many species. In this review, we document the existing attempts to develop cognitive test batteries for non-human animals and review the claims that these studies have made in terms of the structure and evolution of cognition. We argue that our current test battery methods could be improved on multiple fronts, from the design of tasks, to the domains targeted and the species tested. Refining and optimising test battery design will provide many benefits. In future, we envisage that well-designed cognitive test batteries may provide answers to a range of exciting questions, including giving us greater insight into the evolution and structure of cognition.

Male New Zealand robins (Petroica longipes) cater to their mate's desire when sharing food in the wild.

In many species that have bi-parental care, food-sharing males provide vital nutritional resources to their mates during reproduction. However, it is currently unknown whether females can signal specific desires to their mates, or if males can cater to female desire in the wild. Here we investigate whether and how wild male North Island robins (Petroica longipes) respond to changes in their mates' desires and nutritional need when sharing food. We demonstrate that wild female robins' desire for particular foods changes over short time periods; when given the choice between two types of insect larvae, females prefer the type they have not recently eaten. In our experiments, wild male robins preferentially shared the larvae type that their mate was most likely to desire and also increased the quantity of food shared if she had begun incubating. Males catered to their mates' desire when female behaviour was the only cue available to guide their choices. This is the first evidence that females may behaviourally communicate their specific food desires to their mates, enabling males to cater to fine-scale changes in their mates' nutritional requirements in the wild. Such a simple behaviour-reading mechanism has the potential to be widespread among other food-sharing species.

Testing cognition in the wild: factors affecting performance and individual consistency in two measures of avian cognition.

Developing cognitive tasks to reliably quantify individual differences in cognitive ability is critical to advance our understanding of the fitness consequences of cognition in the wild. Several factors may influence individual performance in a cognitive task, with some being unrelated to the cognitive ability that is the target of the test. It is therefore essential to assess how extraneous factors may affect task performance, particularly for those tasks that are frequently used to quantify individual differences in cognitive ability. The current study therefore measured the performance of wild North Island robins in two tasks commonly used to measure individual differences in avian cognition: a novel motor task and a detour reaching task. The robins' performance in the motor task was affected by prior experience; individuals that had previously participated in a similar task that required a different motor action pattern outperformed naïve subjects. By contrast, detour reaching performance was influenced by an individual's body condition, suggesting that energetic state may affect inhibitory control in robins. Designing tasks that limit the influence of past experience and developing means of standardising motivation across animals tested in the wild remain key challenges to improving current measurements of cognitive ability in birds.

Can you teach an old parrot new tricks? Cognitive development in wild kaka (Nestor meridionalis).

Despite recent efforts to characterize innovative individuals within a species, we still know very little about the ontogeny of innovation ability. A number of studies have found that innovation rates are correlated with personality traits, such as neophilia and exploration. Juvenile birds are frequently more neophilic and explorative, yet few studies have found evidence of age-related differences in innovative problem-solving success. Here, we show consistently higher innovation efficiency in juveniles of a wild, omnivorous parrot species across a variety of tasks and contexts. We tested 104 kaka (Nestor meridionalis), ranging in age from four months to 13 years. Twenty-four individuals participated in all three of our problem-solving tasks, two of which involved a familiar feeder and one an entirely novel apparatus. Juveniles were the most efficient problem-solvers in all three tasks. By contrast, the adults' success was context dependent and limited to the novel apparatus, which did not require modification of a pre-learned behavioural response. This suggests greater behavioural flexibility in the juvenile birds, who also showed higher persistence and exploratory diversity than adults. These traits may enable young kaka to discover efficient foraging techniques, which are then maintained throughout adulthood.

Desire-state attribution: Benefits of a novel paradigm using the food-sharing behavior of Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius).

In recent years, we have investigated the possibility that Eurasian jay food sharing might rely on desire-state attribution. The female's desire for a particular type of food can be decreased by sating her on it (specific satiety) and the food sharing paradigm can be used to test whether the male's sharing pattern reflects the female's current desire. Our previous findings show that the male shares the food that the female currently wants. Here, we consider 3 simpler mechanisms that might explain the male's behavior: behavior reading, lack of self-other differentiation and behavioral rules. We illustrate how we have already addressed these issues and how our food sharing paradigm can be further adapted to answer outstanding questions. The flexibility with which the food sharing paradigm can be applied to rule out alternative mechanisms makes it a useful tool to study desire-state attribution in jays and other species that share food.