Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework.

Throughout the sport-science and sports-medicine literature, the term "elite" subjects might be one of the most overused and ill-defined terms. Currently, there is no common perspective or terminology to characterize the caliber and training status of an individual or cohort. This paper presents a 6-tiered Participant Classification Framework whereby all individuals across a spectrum of exercise backgrounds and athletic abilities can be classified. The Participant Classification Framework uses training volume and performance metrics to classify a participant to one of the following: Tier 0: Sedentary; Tier 1: Recreationally Active; Tier 2: Trained/Developmental; Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level; Tier 4: Elite/International Level; or Tier 5: World Class. We suggest the Participant Classification Framework can be used to classify participants both prospectively (as part of study participant recruitment) and retrospectively (during systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses). Discussion around how the Participant Classification Framework can be tailored toward different sports, athletes, and/or events has occurred, and sport-specific examples provided. Additional nuances such as depth of sport participation, nationality differences, and gender parity within a sport are all discussed. Finally, chronological age with reference to the junior and masters athlete, as well as the Paralympic athlete, and their inclusion within the Participant Classification Framework has also been considered. It is our intention that this framework be widely implemented to systematically classify participants in research featuring exercise, sport, performance, health, and/or fitness outcomes going forward, providing the much-needed uniformity to classification practices.

Can we predict the landing performance of simulated aerials in surfing?

This study explored which technical and physical attributes could predict superior and/or safe landing performance when surfers performed variations of a simulated aerial task. Fourteen surfers (age 20.6 ± 5.7 years, height 178.1 ± 9.50 cm, mass 70.6 ± 10.8 kg) had their lower limb mobility, squat jump, countermovement jump, and drop-and-stick landing performance assessed. Performance of two aerial variations (Frontside Air (FA) and Frontside Air Reverse (FAR)) was also measured, with variables relating to technical performance (critical feature and subjective ratings) and potential injury risk (relative total peak landing force and loading rates) collected. Multiple linear regressions were used to predict performance of both aerial variations based on a subset of independent variables. Four models could predict performance. Predicted technical capability in the FAR was mostly influenced by lead limb hip extension and lead limb knee flexion range of motion. Potential injury risk when surfers perform an FA and FAR was predicted to be mitigated by increasing lead ankle dorsiflexion range of motion, as well as trail hip extensor mobility to reduce the relative total peak force experienced when landing the FA. These simple outcome measures could be routinely assessed to ensure successful and safe aerial landings in surfing.

Rate of loading, but not lower limb kinematics or muscle activity, is moderated by limb and aerial variation when surfers land aerials.

We aimed to determine whether there were any differences in how surfers used their lead and trail limbs when landing two variations of a simulated aerial manoeuvre, and whether technique affected the forces generated at landing. Fifteen competitive surfers (age 20.3 ± 5.6 years, height 178.2 ± 9.16 cm, mass 71.0 ± 10.5 kg) performed a Frontside Air (FA) and Frontside Air Reverse (FAR), while we collected the impact forces, ankle and knee muscle activity, and kinematic data. A principal component analysis (PCA) was used to reduce 41 dependent variables into 10 components. A two-way MANOVA revealed that although there were no limb x aerial variation interactions, surfers generated significantly higher relative loading rates at landing for the trail limb compared to the lead limb (+28.8 BW/s; F(1,303) = 20.660, p < 0.0001, η2 = 0.064). This was likely due to the surfers "slapping" the trail limb down when landing, rather than controlling placement of the limb. Similarly, higher relative loading rates were generated when landing the FA compared to the FAR (+23.6 BW/s; F(1,303) = 31.655, p < 0.0001, η2 = 0.095), due to less time over which the forces could be dissipated. No relationships between aerial variation or limb were found for any of the kinematic or muscle activity data. Practitioners should consider the higher relative loading rates generated by a surfer's trail limb and when surfers perform a FA when designing dry-land training to improve the aerial performance of surfing athletes.

Training for success: Do simulated aerial landings replicate successful aerial landings performed in the ocean?

PURPOSE: Physical preparation of competitive surfers includes substantial dry-land training. It is currently unknown, however, how closely these exercises replicate surfing maneuvers performed in the ocean. This study compared the technique features displayed by surfers when landing simulated aerial maneuvers on land to critical features previously established as necessary for surfers to successfully land aerials in the ocean during competition. METHODS: Fourteen competitive surfers (age 20.6 ± 5.7 years, height 178.1 ± 9.50 cm, mass 70.6 ± 10.8 kg) were recruited to perform two variations of a simulated aerial task, a Frontside Air (FA) and Frontside Air Reverse (FAR). Joint ranges of motion (ROM), center of pressure, and apparent gaze data were collected during the landing event. Paired t tests or Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used to identify any significant differences in the outcome variables between the two aerial tasks. RESULTS: Participants displayed 100% and 60% of the critical features associated with successfully landing a FA and FAR, respectively. In both the simulated FA and FAR, participants landed in 1.0-3.7° of dorsiflexion, moving through significantly less ankle joint ROM in the lead limb during the FAR (P < .01). Participants also displayed significantly less knee and hip ROM (P = .002-.048) while landing the FAR compared to the FA. CONCLUSION: The simulated FA and FAR tasks are appropriate training tools for surfers to replicate most of the critical features that a surfer should display to successfully land aerial maneuvers in the ocean. These tasks therefore enable surfers to practice these complex movements in a controlled environment.

Upper-Body Strength Measures and Pop-Up Performance of Stronger and Weaker Surfers.

Parsonage, J, Secomb, JL, Sheppard, JM, Ferrier, BK, Dowse, RA, and Nimphius, S. Upper-body strength measures and pop-up performance of stronger and weaker surfers. J Strength Cond Res 34(10): 2982-2989, 2020-The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the reliability of the isometric push-up (IPU), dynamic push-up (DPU), and force plate pop-up (FP POP) as measures of upper-body isometric and dynamic strength qualities in surfing athletes. Furthermore, the study aimed to compare pop-up performance between stronger and weaker surfers. Eighteen female (n = 9) and male (n = 9) surfers (age = 28.1 ± 6.4 years, mass = 69.6 ± 10.4 kg, and height = 172.5 ± 6.7 cm) completed a battery of upper-body strength assessments, of which exhibited high between-day reliability: IPU, (coefficient of variation [CV%] = 4.7, intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.96), DPU (CV% = 5.0, ICC = 0.90), and FP POP (CV% = 4.4, ICC = 0.90). Participants were subsequently split into stronger (n = 9) and weaker (n = 9) surfers based on normalized peak force (PF) attained in the IPU. Pop-up performance was measured both in the water and during the FP POP and was referred to as time to pop-up (TTP). Significant between-group differences were observed for normalized PF during IPU (d = 1.59, p < 0.01) and DPU (d = 0.94 p = 0.04). Although not significant, there was a large magnitude difference in FP POP (d = 0.80, p = 0.08) and FP TTP (d = 0.85, p = 0.07). Significant correlations were identified between normalized IPU PF and normalized DPU FP (r = 0.69, p = 0.03) and FP TTP (r = 0.73, p = 0.02) in the stronger group. The weaker group exhibited a significant inverse correlation between normalized IPU PF and in-water TTP (r = -0.77, p < 0.01). The results suggest improvements in pop-up performance may be elicited by improving dynamic strength for stronger surfers, whereas pop-up performance in weaker surfers may be elicited by improving maximum strength. The upper-body strength assessments provided a novel insight into strength qualities that are associated with in-water performance of surfers (TTP).

Essential Skills for Superior Wave-Riding Performance: A Systematic Review.

Forsyth, JR, Riddiford-Harland, DL, Whitting, JW, Sheppard, JM, and Steele, JR. Essential skills for superior wave-riding performance: A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 34(10): 3003-3011, 2020-To successfully and safely perform surfing maneuvers, surfers and their coaches need to know how to perform each maneuver correctly. Although some components of the sport are well understood, evidence-based recommendations in the scientific literature on how to perform surfing skills are sparse. The aim of this article was to systematically review the body of literature pertaining to discrete wave-riding skills and characteristics that are associated with the ability of surfers to successfully perform them. Searches of PubMed, SCOPUS, SPORTDiscus with Full-text, and Web of Science were undertaken in January 2019, to identify the most appropriate literature, with secondary searches of reference lists used to create a greater pool of possible articles. The review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P). Ten studies deemed appropriate for review captured data from 299 surfers, who were predominantly competitive (78.3%) and male (58.2%). The average Down and Black Quality Index of the articles was 76.3 ± 8.4%, with these articles focusing on the "pop-up" and landing skills. Performance indicators, such as isometric push-up peak forces, force-plate derived and in-water time to pop-up, relative peak forces generated when landing and time-to-stabilization, were all shown to be related to the physical characteristics of surfers and could affect the ability of surfers to successfully ride a wave. Findings from the studies included in this review suggest that the pop-up and landing exhibit trainable qualities that coaches and athletes can use to improve surfing performance.

Workloads of Competitive Surfing: Work-to-Relief Ratios, Surf-Break Demands, and Updated Analysis.

Farley, ORL, Secomb, JL, Raymond, ER, Lundgren, LE, Ferrier, BK, Abbiss, CR, and Sheppard, JM. Workloads of competitive surfing: work-to-relief ratios, surf-break demands, and updated analysis. J Strength Cond Res 32(10): 2939-2948, 2018-The study provides an in-depth descriptive and quantitative time-motion analysis of competitive surfing, using Global Positioning System (GPS) units and video synchronization, which serves to extend upon the results of Farley, Harris, and Kilding (Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 26, 7 [2012]). In addition, comparisons between locations and surfers competing in the same heats were performed. Global Positioning System and video data were collected from 41 male competitive surfers (23.2 ± 6.1 years, 71 ± 10.3 kg, 177.2 ± 6.4 cm) participating in 3 professional domestic surfing events, with competitive heats of 20-minute duration. Fifty data sets were analyzed across the 3 competitions, with velocities and distances covered, proportion of time spent performing various surfing activities, and total work-to-relief ratio determined. Results revealed surfers paddled 44% of the total time, followed by stationary periods (42%). Surfers performed at a significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher work-to-relief ratio (1.7:1) at the beach-break (an exposed beach) compared with point-break 1 and 2 (waves breaking around a rocky point). Point-breaks 1 and 2 had longer continuous durations of paddling, with significantly longer rides at point-break 1 over the beach-break (p ≤ 0.01) and point-break 2 (p ≤ 0.01). The average maximal speed (24.8 km·h) from point-break 2 was significantly faster than point-break 1 (p ≤ 0.01) and beach-break (p ≤ 0.05). This information should influence surfing drills and conditioning methods to prepare these athletes for the disparate demands, such as training for a point-break competition involving longer durations of continuous paddling and short, high-intensity workloads for a beach-break.

The Assessment of Isometric, Dynamic, and Sports-Specific Upper-Body Strength in Male and Female Competitive Surfers.

The primary purpose of this study was to investigate gender differences in the dynamic strength index (DSI): an assessment of upper-body dynamic strength relative to maximal isometric strength. The secondary purpose was to investigate gender differences in the dynamic skill deficit (DSD): an assessment of sports-specific dynamic strength relative to maximal isometric strength, and its association with a sports-specific performance measure in surfers. Nine male (age = 30.3 ± 7.3 yrs) and eight female (age = 25.5 ± 5.2 yrs) surfers undertook three upper-body assessments: isometric push-up, dynamic push-up, and a force plate pop-up to determine the DSI and DSD. The performance measure of time taken to pop-up (TTP) was recorded. No gender differences for the DSI (d = 0.48, p = 0.33) or DSD (d = 0.69, p = 0.32) were observed. Normalized peak force (PF) of the isometric push-up, dynamic push-up, and force plate pop-up were significantly greater in males (p ≤ 0.05), with males recording significantly quicker TTP (d = 1.35, p < 0.05). The results suggest that male and female surfers apply a similar proportion of their maximal strength in sports-specific movements. However, greater normalized isometric and dynamic strength in males resulted in greater sports-specific PF application and a faster TTP. It would appear favorable that female surfers improve their maximal strength to facilitate sports-specific pop-up performance.

Scoring analysis of the men's 2014, 2015 and 2016 world championship tour of surfing: the importance of aerial manoeuvres in competitive surfing.

The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of aerial manoeuvres on scoring in professional surfing. 23,631 waves were analysed for the number and types of aerial manoeuvres performed from the 2014, 2015 and 2016 Men's World Championship Tour. Additionally, the awarded score, timing and order of the aerial was also analysed. Descriptive statistics and Two Way ANOVA's were performed with Sidak Multiple Comparisons Post Hoc analysis. Results were a significantly higher score being awarded (P ≤ 0.0001) when including an aerial in competition across all three seasons. In 2015 surfers were awarded a significantly larger score when performing an air reverse, compared to 2014 (P = 0.0002) and 2016 (P = 0.0057). Surfers were also awarded a higher score for the full rotation aerial in 2015 compared to 2014 (P = 0.0177). In 2015 surfers performing forehand aerials were awarded a greater score than in 2016 (P = 0.0113). The timing of the aerial and score awarded was significantly greater in 2015 as opposed to 2014 when the aerial was their final manoeuvre (P < 0.0001) and when surfers timed the aerial performance early within the heat (P = 0.0027). If a surfer incorporates an aerial manoeuvre during competition, generally speaking, they will be awarded a significantly higher score.

Physiological Profile of Male Competitive and Recreational Surfers.

Furness, J, Hing, W, Sheppard, JM, Newcomer, S, Schram, B, and Climstein, M. Physiological profile of male competitive and recreational surfers. J Strength Cond Res 32(2): 372-378, 2018-Surfing consists of both high- and low-intensity paddling of varying durations, using both the aerobic and anaerobic systems. Surf-specific physiological studies lack adequate group sample sizes, and V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak values are yet to determine the differences between competitive and recreational surfers. The purpose of this study was therefore to provide a comprehensive physiological profile of both recreational and competitive surfers. This multisite study involved 62 male surfers, recreational (n = 47) and competitive (n = 15). Anthropometric measurements were conducted followed by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, anaerobic testing and finally aerobic testing. V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak was significantly greater in competitive surfers than in recreational surfers (M = 40.71 ± 3.28 vs. 31.25 ± 6.31 ml·kg·min, p < 0.001). This was also paralleled for anaerobic power (M = 303.93 vs. 264.58 W) for competitive surfers. Arm span and lean total muscle mass was significantly (p ≤ 0.01) correlated with key performance variables (V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak and anaerobic power). No significant (p ≥ 0.05) correlations were revealed between season rank and each of the variables of interest (V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak and anaerobic power). Key performance variables (V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak and anaerobic power) are significantly higher in competitive surfers, indicating that this is both an adaptation and requirement in this cohort. This battery of physiological tests could be used as a screening tool to identify an athlete's weaknesses or strengths. Coaches and clinicians could then select appropriate training regimes to address weaknesses.

The Effect of Initial Knee Angle on Concentric-Only Squat Jump Performance.

PURPOSE: There is uncertainty as to which knee angle during a squat jump (SJ) produces maximal jump performance. Importantly, understanding this information will aid in determining appropriate ratios for assessment and monitoring of the explosive characteristics of athletes. METHOD: This study compared SJ performance across different knee angles-90º, 100º, 110º, 120º, 130º, and a self-selected depth-for jump height and other kinetic characteristics. For comparison between SJ and an unconstrained dynamic movement, participants also performed a countermovement jump from a self-selected depth. Thirteen participants (Mage = 25.4 ± 3.5 years, Mheight = 1.8 ± 0.06 m, Mweight = 79.8 ± 9.5 kg) were recruited and tested for their SJ performance. RESULTS: In the SJ, maximal jump height (35.4 ± 4.6 cm) was produced using a self-selected knee angle (98.7 ± 11.2°). Differences between 90°, 100°, and self-selected knee angles for jump height were trivial (ES ± 90% CL = 90°-100° 0.23 ± 0.12, 90°-SS -0.04 ± 0.12, 100°-SS -0.27 ± 0.20; 0.5-2.4 cm) and not statistically different. Differences between all other knee angles for jump height ranged from 3.8 ± 2.0 cm (mean ± 90% CL) to 16.6 ± 2.2 cm. A similar outcome to jump height was observed for velocity, force relative to body weight, and impulse for the assessed knee angles. CONCLUSIONS: For young physically active adult men, the use of a self-selected depth in the SJ results in optimal performance and has only a trivial difference to a constrained knee angle of either 90° or 100°.

Gender Differences in Physical Performance Characteristics of Elite Surfers.

Parsonage, JR, Secomb, JL, Tran, TT, Farley, ORL, Nimphius, S, Lundgren, L, and Sheppard, JM. Gender differences in physical performance characteristics of elite surfers. J Strength Cond Res 31(9): 2417-2422, 2017-The purpose of this study was to describe and compare the gender differences in physical performance characteristics of elite surfers. Twenty competitive female surfers (CFS) and 20 competitive male surfers (CMS) performed a battery of physical performance tests: squat jump (SJ), isometric midthigh pull (IMTP), 15-m sprint paddle, and 400-m endurance paddle during a single testing session. All performance measures were significantly different between CFS and CMS (p < 0.01). Specifically, CMS produced greater peak force production (28.5%) and jumped higher (27.7%) in the SJ and produced greater normalized peak force during the IMTP (18.9%) compared with CFS. For paddling performance, CMS were faster over 5, 10, and 15 m (12.4%, 9.7%, and 10.9%), possessed a higher peak paddling velocity (11.3%), and recorded faster paddle times over 400 m (11.8%). The results of this study suggest that CMS exhibit superior physical performance characteristics than CFS, in relation to both the lower and upper body. Strength and conditioning practitioners should therefore implement a structured and periodized program to facilitate strength qualities that underpin surfing performance for all participants, but as highlighted in the current investigation, female surfers may have a greater window for adaptation and therefore vast benefit of targeting their underdeveloped physical qualities.

Performance Analysis of Surfing: A Review.

Farley, ORL, Abbiss, CR, and Sheppard, JM. Performance Analysis of Surfing: A Review. J Strength Cond Res 31(1): 260-271, 2017-Despite the increased professionalism and substantial growth of surfing worldwide, there is limited information available to practitioners and coaches in terms of key performance analytics that are common in other field-based sports. Indeed, research analyzing surfing performance is limited to a few studies examining male surfers' heart rates, surfing activities through time-motion analysis (TMA) using video recordings and Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) data during competition and recreational surfing. These studies have indicated that specific activities undertaken during surfing are unique with a variety of activities (i.e., paddling, resting, wave riding, breath holding, and recovery of surfboard in the surf). Furthermore, environmental and wave conditions also seem to influence the physical demands of competition surfing. It is due to these demands that surfers are required to have a high cardiorespiratory fitness, high muscular endurance, and considerable strength and anaerobic power, particular within the upper torso. By exploring various methods of performance analysis used within other sports, it is possible to improve our understanding of surfing demands. In so doing this will assist in the development of protocols and strategies to assess physiological characteristics of surfers, monitor athlete performance, improve training prescription, and identify talent. Therefore, this review explores the current literature to provide insights into methodological protocols, delimitations of research into athlete analysis and an overview of surfing dynamics. Specifically, this review will describe and review the use of TMA, GPS, and other technologies (i.e., HR) that are used in external and internal load monitoring as they pertain to surfing.

Changes in Rugby League Tackling Ability During a Competitive Season: The Relationship With Strength and Power Qualities.

Speranza, MJA, Gabbett, TJ, Greene, DA, Johnston, RD, and Sheppard, JM. Changes in rugby league tackling ability during a competitive season: the relationship with strength and power qualities. J Strength Cond Res 31(12): 3311-3318, 2017-This study examined the relationship between changes in tackling ability, and muscular strength and power during a semiprofessional rugby league competitive season. Twelve semiprofessional rugby league players (mean ± SD age, 23.3 ± 2.0 years) underwent tests of upper- and lower-body strength and power during the preseason period. Tackling ability was tested using video analysis of a standardized one-on-one tackling drill. Players repeated these tests after round 15 of a 25-match competitive season. Changes in 1 repetition maximum (1RM) squat (rs = 0.70; p < 0.02) and squat relative to body mass (rs = 0.73; p < 0.01) were significantly related to changes in tackling ability. Players with the greatest improvements in tackling ability (i.e., "responders") retained 1RM squat (effect size, ES = 0.85, p = 0.09) and squat relative to body mass (ES = 0.82, p = 0.15) to a greater extent than the "nonresponders." The results of this study suggest that players who retained lower-body strength were able to improve tackling ability during the competitive season, whereas reductions in lower-body strength were associated with decrements in tackling ability. This study highlights the importance of the development and maintenance of lower-body muscular strength for effective tackling performance throughout the rugby league season.

The Effect of Contextual Factors on Physiological and Activity Profiles in International Women's Rugby Sevens.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the effects of contextual game factors on activity and physiological profiles of international-level women's rugby sevens players. METHODS: Twenty international-level female rugby sevens players from the same national team participated in this study. Global positioning system and heart-rate data were collected at 5 World Rugby Women's Sevens Series events (2013-14 season). RESULTS: Total, moderate-speed (0.2-3.5 m/s), and high-speed running (3.5-5.0 m/s) distances were significantly greater in the first half (20.1% ± 4.1%, 17.6% ± 6.9%, 24.5% ± 7.8%), during losses (11.4% ± 6.1%, 6.1% ± 6.4%, 26.9% ± 9.8%), during losses of large magnitudes (≥2 tries) (12.9% ± 8.8%, 6.8% ± 10.0%, 31.2% ± 14.9%), and against top-4 opponents (12.6% ± 8.7%, 11.3% ± 8.5%, 15.5% ± 13.9%). In addition, total distance increased (5.0% ± 5.5%) significantly from day 1 to day 2 of tournaments, and very-high-speed (5.0-6.5 m/s) running distance increased significantly (26.0% ± 14.2%) during losses. Time spent between 90% and 100% of maximum heart rate (16.4% ± 14.5%) and player load (19.0% ± 5.1%) were significantly greater in the second half. No significant differences in physiological or activity profiles were observed between forwards and backs. CONCLUSIONS: Game half, game outcome, tournament day, opponent rank, and margin of outcome all affected activity profiles, whereas game half affected physiological profiles. No differences in activity or physiological profiles were found between playing positions. Practitioners are advised to develop high-speed running ability in women's rugby sevens players to prepare them to tolerate the varying factors that affect activity profiles.

A simple method for quantifying jump loads in volleyball athletes.

OBJECTIVES: Evaluate the validity of a commercially available wearable device, the Vert, for measuring vertical displacement and jump count in volleyball athletes. Propose a potential method of quantifying external load during training and match play within this population. DESIGN: Validation study. METHODS: The ability of the Vert device to measure vertical displacement in male, junior elite volleyball athletes was assessed against reference standard laboratory motion analysis. The ability of the Vert device to count jumps during training and match-play was assessed via comparison with retrospective video analysis to determine precision and recall. A method of quantifying external load, known as the load index (LdIx) algorithm was proposed using the product of the jump count and average kinetic energy. RESULTS: Correlation between two separate Vert devices and three-dimensional trajectory data were good to excellent for all jump types performed (r=0.83-0.97), with a mean bias of between 3.57-4.28cm. When matched against jumps identified through video analysis, the Vert demonstrated excellent precision (0.995-1.000) evidenced by a low number of false positives. The number of false negatives identified with the Vert was higher resulting in lower recall values (0.814-0.930). CONCLUSIONS: The Vert is a commercially available tool that has potential for measuring vertical displacement and jump count in elite junior volleyball athletes without the need for time-consuming analysis and bespoke software. Subsequently, allowing the collected data to better quantify load using the proposed algorithm (LdIx).

Maximal Strength Training Improves Surfboard Sprint and Endurance Paddling Performance in Competitive and Recreational Surfers.

Coyne, JOC, Tran, TT, Secomb, JL, Lundgren, LE, Farley, ORL, Newton, RU, and Sheppard, JM. Maximal strength training improves surfboard sprint and endurance paddling performance in competitive and recreational surfers. J Strength Cond Res 31(1): 244-253, 2017-Upper-body (UB) strength has very high correlations with faster surfboard paddling speeds. However, there is no research examining the effects of improving UB strength has on surfboard paddling ability. This study aimed to determine the influence that improvements in UB closed-kinetic chain maximal strength have on surfboard paddling in both competitive and recreational surfers. Seventeen competitive and recreational male surfers (29.7 ± 7.7 years, 177.4 ± 7.4 cm, 76.7 ± 9.9 kg) participated in a repeated-measures, parallel control study design. Anthropometry; 5-, 10-, and 15-m sprint; and 400-m endurance surfboard paddling tests along with pull-up and dip 1 repetition maximum strength tests were assessed pre- and postintervention. Subjects in the training group performed 5 weeks of maximal strength training in the pull-up and dip. Differences between the training and control groups were examined postintervention. The training group increased their speed over the 5-, 10-, and 15-m sprint, whereas the control group became slower (d = 0.71, 0.51, and 0.4, respectively). The training group also displayed faster endurance paddling performance compared with the control group (d = 0.72). Short-term exposure to maximal strength training elicits improvements in paddling performance measures. However, the magnitude of performance increases seems to be dependent on initial strength levels with differential responses between strong and weaker athletes. Although a longer maximal strength training period may have produced more significant paddling improvements in stronger subjects, practitioners are unlikely to have any more than 5 weeks in an uninterrupted block with competitive surfing athletes. This study reveals that a "threshold" level of maximal strength that if possessed, short-term maximal strength training may only provide little improvement in paddling performance.

Clinical methods to quantify trunk mobility in an elite male surfing population.

BACKGROUND: Thoracic mobility in the sagittal and horizontal planes are key requirements in the sport of surfing; however to date the normal values of these movements have not yet been quantified in a surfing population. OBJECTIVES: To develop a reliable method to quantify thoracic mobility in the sagittal plane; to assess the reliability of an existing thoracic rotation method, and quantify thoracic mobility in an elite male surfing population. DESIGN: Clinical Measurement, reliability and comparative study. METHODS: A total of 30 subjects were used to determine the reliability component. 15 elite surfers were used as part of a comparative analysis with age and gender matched controls. RESULTS: Intraclass correlation coefficient values ranged between 0.95-0.99 (95% CI; 0.89-0.99) for both thoracic methods. The elite surfing group had significantly (p ≤ 0.05) greater rotation than the comparative group (mean rotation 63.57° versus 40.80°, respectively). CONCLUSION: This study has illustrated reliable methods to assess the thoracic spine in the sagittal plane and thoracic rotation. It has also quantified ROM in a surfing cohort; identifying thoracic rotation as a key movement. This information may provide clinicians, coaches and athletic trainers with imperative information regarding the importance of maintaining adequate thoracic rotation.

Five Weeks of Sprint and High-Intensity Interval Training Improves Paddling Performance in Adolescent Surfers.

Farley, ORL, Secomb, JL, Parsonage, JR, Lundgren, LE, Abbiss, CR, and Sheppard, JM. Five weeks of sprint and high-intensity interval training improves paddling performance in adolescent surfers. J Strength Cond Res 30(9): 2446-2452, 2016-The purpose of our study was to examine the effects of sprint interval training (SIT; 10 seconds) and high-intensity interval training (HIT; 30 seconds) on surfing athletes paddling performance (400-m time trial and repeat-sprint paddle performance). Twenty-four competitive adolescent surfers (19 male, 5 female; age = 14.4 ± 1.3 years, mass: 50.1 ± 10.7 kg, and stature: 159.9 ± 10.3 cm) were assigned to perform either 5 weeks of SIT and HIT. Participants completed a repeated-sprint paddle ability test (RSPT, 15-m surfboard sprint paddle initiated every 40 seconds × 10 bouts) and 400-m endurance surfboard paddle time trial before and after training. High-intensity interval training decreased the total time to complete the 400 m by 15.8 ± 16.1 seconds (p = 0.03), and SIT decreased the total time to complete the RSPT by 6.5 ± 4.3 seconds (p = 0.02). Fatigue index during the RSPT (first-slowest effort) was lower after HIT and SIT (p ≤ 0.001 and p = 0.02, respectively). There were no significant differences in performance changes in the 400 m (total time) and RSPT (total time, fastest 15 m time, and peak velocity) between HIT and SIT. Our study indicates that HIT and SIT may be implemented to the training program of surfers to improve aerobic and repeat-sprint paddle ability, both of which are identified as key aspects of the sport. In addition, these findings indicate that 400-m paddle and RSPT can discriminate between aerobic and anaerobic training adaptations, with aerobic gains likely from HIT and anaerobic gains from SIT.

Effect of Strength and Power Training on Tackling Ability in Semiprofessional Rugby League Players.

This study examined the influence of a strength and power program on tackling ability in rugby league players. Twenty-four semiprofessional rugby league players (mean ± SD age, 23.4 ± 3.1 years) underwent tests of upper-body strength (3 repetition maximum [RM] bench press), lower-body strength (3RM squat), upper-body power (plyometric push-up), and lower-body power (countermovement jump [CMJ]). Muscular strength relative to body mass was also calculated. Tackling ability of the players was assessed using video analysis of a standardized one-on-one tackling drill. The players then underwent 8 weeks of strength and power training as part of their preseason training before being retested. Training resulted in significant (p ≤ 0.01) improvements in absolute and relative measures of squat, bench press, CMJ peak power, and plyometric push-up peak power. The strongest correlates of change in tackling ability were changes in 3RM squat (r = 0.60; p < 0.01) and squat relative to body mass (r = 0.54; p < 0.01). The players with the greatest improvements in 3RM squat and squat relative to body mass (i.e., responders) had significantly greater improvements in tackling ability than nonresponding players (p = 0.04; effect size [ES] ≥ 0.85). A small, nonsignificant difference (p = 0.20; ES = 0.56) in tackling ability was found between responders and nonresponders for lower-body power. The findings of this study demonstrate that the enhancement of lower-body muscular strength, and to a lesser extent muscular power, contribute to improvements in tackling ability in semiprofessional rugby league players.