Nuclear receptor NR4A1 promotes breast cancer invasion and metastasis by activating TGF-ß signalling.

In advanced cancers, the TGF-ß pathway acts as an oncogenic factor and is considered to be a therapeutic target. Here using a genome-wide cDNA screen, we identify nuclear receptor NR4A1 as a strong activator of TGF-ß signalling. NR4A1 promotes TGF-ß/SMAD signalling by facilitating AXIN2-RNF12/ARKADIA-induced SMAD7 degradation. NR4A1 interacts with SMAD7 and AXIN2, and potently and directly induces AXIN2 expression. Whereas loss of NR4A1 inhibits TGF-ß-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and metastasis, slight NR4A1 ectopic expression stimulates metastasis in a TGF-ß-dependent manner. Importantly, inflammatory cytokines potently induce NR4A1 expression, and potentiate TGF-ß-mediated breast cancer cell migration, invasion and metastasis in vitro and in vivo. Notably, NR4A1 expression is elevated in breast cancer patients with high immune infiltration and its expression weakly correlates with phosphorylated SMAD2 levels, and is an indicator of poor prognosis. Our results uncover inflammation-induced NR4A1 as an important determinant for hyperactivation of pro-oncogenic TGF-ß signalling in breast cancer.

TRAF4 promotes TGF-ß receptor signaling and drives breast cancer metastasis.

TGF-ß signaling is a therapeutic target in advanced cancers. We identified tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 4 (TRAF4) as a key component mediating pro-oncogenic TGF-ß-induced SMAD and non-SMAD signaling. Upon TGF-ß stimulation, TRAF4 is recruited to the active TGF-ß receptor complex, where it antagonizes E3 ligase SMURF2 and facilitates the recruitment of deubiquitinase USP15 to the TGF-ß type I receptor (TßRI). Both processes contribute to TßRI stabilization on the plasma membrane and thereby enhance TGF-ß signaling. In addition, the TGF-ß receptor-TRAF4 interaction triggers Lys 63-linked TRAF4 polyubiquitylation and subsequent activation of the TGF-ß-activated kinase (TAK)1. TRAF4 is required for efficient TGF-ß-induced migration, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and breast cancer metastasis. Elevated TRAF4 expression correlated with increased levels of phosphorylated SMAD2 and phosphorylated TAK1 as well as poor prognosis among breast cancer patients. Our results demonstrate that TRAF4 can regulate the TGF-ß pathway and is a key determinant in breast cancer pathogenesis.

Rescue screens with secreted proteins reveal compensatory potential of receptor tyrosine kinases in driving cancer growth.

The overall power of kinase inhibitors is substantially overshadowed by the acquisition of drug resistance. To address this issue, we systematically assessed the potential of secreted proteins to induce resistance to kinase inhibitors. To this end, we developed a high-throughput platform for screening a cDNA library encoding 3,432 secreted proteins in cellular assays. Using cancer cells originally dependent on either MET, FGFR2, or FGFR3, we observed a bypass of dependence through ligand-mediated activation of alternative receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK). Our findings indicate a broad and versatile potential for RTKs from the HER and FGFR families as well as MET to compensate for loss of each other. We further provide evidence that combined inhibition of simultaneously active RTKs can lead to an added anticancer effect.

USP4 is regulated by AKT phosphorylation and directly deubiquitylates TGF-ß type I receptor.

The stability and membrane localization of the transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) type I receptor (TßRI) determines the levels of TGF-ß signalling. TßRI is targeted for ubiquitylation-mediated degradation by the SMAD7-SMURF2 complex. Here we performed a genome-wide gain-of-function screen and identified ubiquitin-specific protease (USP) 4 as a strong inducer of TGF-ß signalling. USP4 was found to directly interact with TßRI and act as a deubiquitylating enzyme, thereby controlling TßRI levels at the plasma membrane. Depletion of USP4 mitigates TGF-ß-induced epithelial to mesenchymal transition and metastasis. Importantly, AKT (also known as protein kinase B), which has been associated with poor prognosis in breast cancer, directly associates with and phosphorylates USP4. AKT-mediated phosphorylation relocates nuclear USP4 to the cytoplasm and membrane and is required for maintaining its protein stability. Moreover, AKT-induced breast cancer cell migration was inhibited by USP4 depletion and TßRI kinase inhibition. Our results uncover USP4 as an important determinant for crosstalk between TGF-ß and AKT signalling pathways.

RNF12 controls embryonic stem cell fate and morphogenesis in zebrafish embryos by targeting Smad7 for degradation.

TGF-ß members are of key importance during embryogenesis and tissue homeostasis. Smad7 is a potent antagonist of TGF-ß family/Smad-mediated responses, but the regulation of Smad7 activity is not well understood. We identified the RING domain-containing E3 ligase RNF12 as a critical component of TGF-ß signaling. Depletion of RNF12 dramatically reduced TGF-ß/Smad-induced effects in mammalian cells, whereas ectopic expression of RNF12 strongly enhanced these responses. RNF12 specifically binds to Smad7 and induces its polyubiquitination and degradation. Smad7 levels were increased in RNF12-deficient mouse embryonic stem cells, resulting in mitigation of both BMP-mediated repression of neural induction and activin-induced anterior mesoderm formation. RNF12 also antagonized Smad7 during Nodal-dependent and BMP-dependent signaling and morphogenic events in early zebrafish embryos. The gastrulation defects induced by ectopic and depleted Smad7 were rescued in part by RNF12 gain and loss of function, respectively. These findings demonstrate that RNF12 plays a critical role in TGF-ß family signaling.

PD-1 inhibits T-cell receptor induced phosphorylation of the ZAP70/CD3zeta signalosome and downstream signaling to PKCtheta.

Engagement of the immunoinhibitory receptor, programmed death-1 (PD-1) attenuates T-cell receptor (TCR)-mediated activation of IL-2 production and T-cell proliferation. Here, we demonstrate that PD-1 modulation of T-cell function involves inhibition of TCR-mediated phosphorylation of ZAP70 and association with CD3zeta. In addition, PD-1 signaling attenuates PKCtheta activation loop phosphorylation in a cognate TCR signal. PKCtheta has been shown to be required for T-cell IL-2 production. A phosphorylated PD-1 peptide, corresponding to the C-terminal immunoreceptor tyrosine-switch motif (ITSM), acts as a docking site in vitro for both SHP-2 and SHP-1, while the phosphorylated peptide containing the N-terminal PD-1 immunoreceptor tyrosine based inhibitory motif (ITIM) associates only with SHP-2.