Kainate receptor mediated presynaptic LTP in agranular insular cortex contributes to fear and anxiety in mice.

Anxiety disorders represent serious social problems worldwide. Recent neuroimaging studies have found that elevated activity and altered connectivity of the insular cortex might account for the negative emotional states in highly anxious individuals. However, the exact synaptic mechanisms of specific insular subregions have yet to be studied in detail. To assess the electrophysiological properties of agranular insular cortex (AIC) neurons, basic synaptic transmission was recorded and different protocols were used to induce presynaptic and postsynaptic long-term potentiation in mice with anxiety-related behaviors. The presynaptic membrane expression of kainate receptors (KARs) and pharmacologic manipulations were quantified to examine the role of Gluk1 subtype in anxiety-like behaviors. Fear conditioning occludes electrically induced postsynaptic-LTP in the AIC. Quantal analysis of LTP expression in this region revealed a significant presynaptic component reflected by an increase in the probability of transmitter release. A form of presynaptic-LTP that requires KARs has been characterized. Interestingly, a simple emotional anxiety stimulus resulted in selective occlusion of presynaptic-LTP, but not of postsynaptic-LTP. Finally, injecting GluK1-specific antagonists into the AIC reduced behavioral responses to fear or anxiety stimuli in the mouse. These findings suggest that activity-dependent synaptic plasticity takes place in the AIC due to exposure to fear or anxiety, and inhibiting the presynaptic KAR function may help to prevent or treat anxiety disorder.

Neuroprotective effects of a novel translocator protein (18 kDa) ligand, ZBD-2, against focal cerebral ischemia and NMDA-induced neurotoxicity.

Ligands of the translocator protein (18 kDa) (TSPO) have demonstrated rapid anxiolytic efficacy in stress responses and stress-related disorders. This protein is involved in the synthesis of endogenous neurosteroids including pregnenolone, dehydroepiandrosterone, and progesterone. These neurosteroids promote γ-aminobutyric acid-mediated neurotransmission in the central neural system (CNS). A TSPO ligand, N-benzyl-N-ethyl-2-(7,8-dihydro-7-benzyl-8-oxo-2-phenyl-9H-purin-9-yl) acetamide (ZBD-2) was recently synthesized. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the neuroprotective effects of ZBD-2 and. In cultured cortical neurons, treatment with ZBD-2 attenuated excitotoxicity induced by N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) exposure. It significantly decreased the number of apoptotic cells by downregulating GluN2B-containing NMDA receptors (NMDARs), the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2, and levels of pro-caspase-3. Systemic treatment of ZBD-2 provided significant neuroprotection in mice subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion. These findings provide direct evidence that neuroprotection by ZBD-2 is partially mediated by inhibiting GluN2B-containing NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxicity.

N-type voltage gated calcium channels mediate excitatory synaptic transmission in the anterior cingulate cortex of adult mice.

Voltage gated calcium channels (VGCCs) are well known for its importance in synaptic transmission in the peripheral and central nervous system. However, the role of different VGCCs in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) has not been studied. Here, we use a multi-electrode array recording system (MED64) to study the contribution of different types of calcium channels in glutamatergic excitatory synaptic transmission in the ACC. We found that only the N-type calcium channel blocker ω-conotoxin-GVIA (ω-Ctx-GVIA) produced a great inhibition of basal synaptic transmission, especially in the superficial layer. Other calcium channel blockers that act on L-, P/Q-, R-, and T-type had no effect. We also tested the effects of several neuromodulators with or without ω-Ctx-GVIA. We found that N-type VGCC contributed partially to (1S,3R)-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid- and (R)-Baclofen-induced synaptic inhibition. By contrast, the inhibitory effects of 2-Chloroadenosine and carbamoylcholine chloride did not differ with or without ω-Ctx-GVIA, indicating that they may act through other mechanisms. Our results provide strong evidence that N-type VGCCs mediate fast synaptic transmission in the ACC.

Long-term potentiation of synaptic transmission in the adult mouse insular cortex: multielectrode array recordings.

The insular cortex (IC) is widely believed to be an important forebrain structure involved in cognitive and sensory processes such as memory and pain. However, little work has been performed at the cellular level to investigate the synaptic basis of IC-related brain functions. To bridge the gap, the present study was designed to characterize the basic synaptic mechanisms for insular long-term potentiation (LTP). Using a 64-channel recording system, we found that an enduring form of late-phase LTP (L-LTP) could be reliably recorded for at least 3 h in different layers of IC slices after theta burst stimulation. The induction of insular LTP is protein synthesis dependent and requires activation of both GluN2A and GluN2B subunits of the NMDA receptor, L-type voltage-gated calcium channels, and metabotropic glutamate receptor 1. The paired-pulse facilitation ratio was unaffected by insular L-LTP induction, and expression of insular L-LTP required the recruitment of postsynaptic calcium-permeable AMPA receptors. Our results provide the first in vitro report of long-term multichannel recordings of L-LTP in the IC in adult mice and suggest its potential important roles in insula-related memory and chronic pain.

Protection by salidroside against bone loss via inhibition of oxidative stress and bone-resorbing mediators.

Oxidative stress is a pivotal pathogenic factor for bone loss in mouse model. Salidroside, a phenylpropanoid glycoside extracted from Rhodiola rosea L, exhibits potent antioxidative effects. In the present study, we used an in vitro oxidative stress model induced by hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) in MC3T3-E1 cells and a murine ovariectomized (OVX) osteoporosis model to investigate the protective effects of salidroside on bone loss and the related mechanisms. We demonstrated that salidroside caused a significant (P<0.05) elevation of cell survival, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining and activity, calcium deposition, and the transcriptional expression of Alp, Col1a1 and Osteocalcin (Ocn) in the presence of H(2)O(2). Moreover, salidroside decreased the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and osteoclast differentiation inducing factors such as receptor activator of nuclear factor-kB ligand (RANKL) and IL-6 induced by H(2)O(2). In vivo studies further demonstrated that salidroside supplementation for 3 months caused a decrease in malondialdehyde (MDA) and an increase in reduced glutathione (GSH) concentration in blood of ovariectomized mouse (P<0.05), it also improved trabecular bone microarchitecture and bone mineral density in the fourth lumbar vertebra and distal femur. Our study indicated that the protection provided by salidroside in alleviating bone loss was mediated, at least in part, via inhibition of the release of bone-resorbing mediators and oxidative damage to bone-forming cells, suggesting that salidroside can be used as an effective remedy in the treatment or prevention of osteoporosis.

A new chiral pyrrolyl α-nitronyl nitroxide radical attenuates ß-amyloid deposition and rescues memory deficits in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease.

The generation of reactive oxygen species causes cellular oxidative damage, and has been implicated in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). L-NNNBP, a new chiral pyrrolyl α-nitronyl nitroxide radical synthesized in our department, shows potential antioxidant effects. The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effects of L-NNNBP on ß-amyloid (Aß) deposition and memory deficits in an AD model of APP/PS1 mice. In cultured cortical neurons, L-NNNBP acted as an antioxidant by quenching reactive oxygen species, inhibiting lipid peroxidation, nitrosative stress, and stimulating cellular antioxidant defenses. L-NNNBP inhibited cell apoptosis induced by Aß exposure. In vivo treatment with L-NNNBP for 1 month induced a marked decrease in brain Aß deposition and tau phosphorylation in the blinded study on APP/PS1 transgenic mice (1 mM in drinking water, initiated when the mice were 6 months old). The L-NNNBP-treated APP/PS1 mice showed decreased astrocyte activation and improved spatial learning and memory compared with the vehicle-treated APP/PS1 mice. These actions were more potent compared with that of curcumin, a natural product, and TEMPO, a nitroxide radical, which are used as free radical scavengers in clinics. These results proved that the newly synthesized L-NNNBP was an effective therapeutic agent for the prevention and treatment of AD.

Long-lasting effects of chronic rTMS to treat chronic rodent model of depression.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) has been demonstrated in the pre-clinical and clinical settings to have an antidepressant effect. However, studies on the long-lasting effect of rTMS, especially when the effect is measured after treatment has ceased for a few weeks is lacking. We examined this question in a chronic unpredicted mild stress (CUMS) rat model of depression. We gave 3 weeks of high frequency (15 Hz) rTMS, venlafaxine, or these two treatments combined to a modified CUMS paradigm, and then investigated the prolonged effect of treatments. Behavioral testing (sucrose preference test, open field test, forced swimming test, novelty suppressed feeding test), plasma hormone level, hippocampal BrdU labeling, and amount of related neurotropic factors were used to assess the effects of stress and treatments. Long-term chronic rTMS significantly reversed andehonic-like behavior, increased hippocampus cell proliferation, BDNF protein level, phosphorylation of ERK1/2 compared with CUMS rats two weeks after the cessation of rTMS treatment. However, the changes in plasma hormone level were not sustained for that amount of time. Venlafaxine had no interaction with the physical stimulation. Our results suggest that high frequency rTMS has long-lasting effects, which may have some relationship with neuroplasticity.

G-protein-coupled receptor 30 mediates rapid neuroprotective effects of estrogen via depression of NR2B-containing NMDA receptors.

17-ß-estradiol (E2) is a steroid hormone involved in neuroprotection against excitotoxicity and other forms of brain injury. Through genomic and nongenomic mechanisms, E2 modulates neuronal excitability and signal transmission by regulating NMDA and non-NMDA receptors. However, the mechanisms and identity of the receptors involved remain unclear, even though studies have suggested that estrogen G-protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30) is linked to protection against ischemic injury. In the culture cortical neurons, treatment with E2 and the GPR30 agonist G1 for 45 min attenuated the excitotoxicity induced by NMDA exposure. The acute neuroprotection mediated by GPR30 is dependent on G-protein-coupled signals and ERK1/2 activation, but independent on transcription or translation. Knockdown of GPR30 using short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) significantly reduced the E2-induced rapid neuroprotection. Patch-clamp recordings revealed that GPR30 activation depressed exogenous NMDA-elicited currents. Short-term GPR30 activation did not affect the expression of either NR2A- or NR2B-containing NMDARs; however, it depressed NR2B subunit phosphorylation at Ser-1303 by inhibiting the dephosphorylation of death-associated protein kinase 1 (DAPK1). DAPK1 knockdown using shRNAs significantly blocked NR2B subunit phosphorylation at Ser-1303 and abolished the GPR30-mediated depression of exogenous NMDA-elicited currents. Lateral ventricle injection of the GPR30 agonist G1 (0.2 µg) provided significant neuroprotection in the ovariectomized female mice subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion. These findings provide direct evidence that fast neuroprotection by estradiol is partially mediated by GPR30 and the subsequent downregulation of NR2B-containing NMDARs. The modulation of DAPK1 activity by GPR30 may be an important mediator of estradiol-dependent neuroprotection.

Neuroprotective effects of Salidroside and its analogue tyrosol galactoside against focal cerebral ischemia in vivo and H2O2-induced neurotoxicity in vitro.

Salidroside (Sal) is a natural antioxidant extracted from the root of Rhodiola rosea L. that elicits neuroprotective effects in vivo and in vitro. Tyrosol galactoside (Tyr), an analog of Sal, was recently synthesized in our laboratory. The purpose of the current study was to investigate and compare the neuroprotective effects of Sal and Tyr against focal cerebral ischemia in vivo and H(2)O(2)-induced neurotoxicity in vitro. Sal and Tyr significantly prevented a cerebral ischemic injury induced by a 2 h middle cerebral artery occlusion and a 24 h reperfusion in rats in vivo. Furthermore, the oxidative insult was markedly attenuated by treatments of Sal and Tyr in the cultured rat cortical neurons after a 30 min exposure to 50 µM of H(2)O(2). Western blot analysis revealed that Sal and Tyr decreased the expression of Bax and restored the balance of pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins. The neuroprotective effects of these two analogues show that Tyr has a better antioxidative action compared with Sal both in vivo and in vitro, and suggest that the antioxidant activity of Sal and Tyr may be partly due to their different substituents in their glycosyl groups. This gives a new insight into the development of therapeutic natural antioxidants against oxidative stress.

Selectivity differences between alkyl and polar-modified alkyl phases in reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography.

Compared to conventional C18 phases, polar-modified phases have distinct differences with regards to chromatographic behavior. In the present study, ODS phases and polar-modified phases were synthesized. The columns containing these new packings demonstrated satisfactory stability under both acidic (pH 1.5) and basic (pH 10) conditions. We evaluated the selectivity differences between alkyl and polar-modified alkyl RP columns by using a range of neutral analytes. The polar-modified alkyl phases showed excellent peak shapes for almost all compounds. We also compared the selectivity differences between them for separating nucleotides by using 100% aqueous mobile phase and tricyclic antidepressants in the intermediate pH mobile phases. The results demonstrated that polar-modified phases display a significantly reduced hydrophobic nature and a significantly reduced silanol activity compared to the conventional C18 phases.