A pathogenesis-related 10 protein catalyzes the final step in thebaine biosynthesis.

The ultimate step in the formation of thebaine, a pentacyclic opiate alkaloid readily converted to the narcotic analgesics codeine and morphine in the opium poppy, has long been presumed to be a spontaneous reaction. We have detected and purified a novel enzyme from opium poppy latex that is capable of the efficient formation of thebaine from (7S)-salutaridinol 7-O-acetate at the expense of labile hydroxylated byproducts, which are preferentially produced by spontaneous allylic elimination. Remarkably, thebaine synthase (THS), a member of the pathogenesis-related 10 protein (PR10) superfamily, is encoded within a novel gene cluster in the opium poppy genome that also includes genes encoding the four biosynthetic enzymes immediately upstream. THS is a missing component that is crucial to the development of fermentation-based opiate production and dramatically improves thebaine yield in engineered yeast.

Characterization of [FeFe] Hydrogenase O2 Sensitivity Using a New, Physiological Approach.

[FeFe] hydrogenases catalyze rapid H2 production but are highly O2-sensitive. Developing O2-tolerant enzymes is needed for sustainable H2 production technologies, but the lack of a quantitative and predictive assay for O2 tolerance has impeded progress. We describe a new approach to provide quantitative assessment of O2 sensitivity by using an assay employing ferredoxin NADP+ reductase (FNR) to transfer electrons from NADPH to hydrogenase via ferredoxins (Fd). Hydrogenase inactivation is measured during H2 production in an O2-containing environment. An alternative assay uses dithionite (DTH) to provide reduced Fd. This second assay measures the remaining hydrogenase activity in periodic samples taken from the NADPH-driven reaction solutions. The second assay validates the more convenient NADPH-driven assay, which better mimics physiological conditions. During development of the NADPH-driven assay and while characterizing the Clostridium pasteurianum (Cp) [FeFe] hydrogenase, CpI, we detected significant rates of direct electron loss from reduced Fd to O2 However, this loss does not interfere with measurement of first order hydrogenase inactivation, providing rate constants insensitive to initial hydrogenase concentration. We show increased activity and O2 tolerance for a protein fusion between Cp ferredoxin (CpFd) and CpI mediated by a 15-amino acid linker but not for a longer linker. We suggest that this precise, solution phase assay for [FeFe] hydrogenase O2 sensitivity and the insights we provide constitute an important advance toward the discovery of the O2-tolerant [FeFe] hydrogenases required for photosynthetic, biological H2 production.

Cell-free synthesis of the H-cluster: a model for the in vitro assembly of metalloprotein metal centers.

Many organometallic cofactors are highly complex and require multiple accessory proteins for both their assembly and transfer to a target protein. A cell-free system in which the biosynthetic pathway for a prosthetic group has been fully or even partially reconstructed enables investigations of the reaction sequence as well as the cofactor itself. As a model for the in vitro assembly of protein-bound metal centers, we describe a procedure for the cell-free synthesis of the H-cluster in the context of producing purified and active [FeFe] hydrogenase samples for spectroscopic studies. In general terms, this in vitro system is a combination of non-purified accessory proteins, exogenous substrates, and purified hydrogenase apoprotein. We also describe methods for making the required components used in the cell-free system. Specifically, these procedures include anaerobic expression of heterologous metalloproteins in Escherichia coli, anaerobic cell lysate production, and anaerobic metalloprotein purification using Strep-Tactin(®) chromatography.

The HydG enzyme generates an Fe(CO)2(CN) synthon in assembly of the FeFe hydrogenase H-cluster.

Three iron-sulfur proteins--HydE, HydF, and HydG--play a key role in the synthesis of the [2Fe](H) component of the catalytic H-cluster of FeFe hydrogenase. The radical S-adenosyl-L-methionine enzyme HydG lyses free tyrosine to produce p-cresol and the CO and CN(-) ligands of the [2Fe](H) cluster. Here, we applied stopped-flow Fourier transform infrared and electron-nuclear double resonance spectroscopies to probe the formation of HydG-bound Fe-containing species bearing CO and CN(-) ligands with spectroscopic signatures that evolve on the 1- to 1000-second time scale. Through study of the (13)C, (15)N, and (57)Fe isotopologs of these intermediates and products, we identify the final HydG-bound species as an organometallic Fe(CO)2(CN) synthon that is ultimately transferred to apohydrogenase to form the [2Fe](H) component of the H-cluster.

Non-viral delivery of inductive and suppressive genes to adipose-derived stem cells for osteogenic differentiation.

PURPOSE: To assess the effects of co-delivering osteoinductive DNA and/or small interfering RNA in directing the osteogenic differentiation of human adipose-derived stem cells (hADSCs) using a combinatorial, non-viral gene delivery approach. METHODS: hADSCs were transfected using combinations of the following genes: BMP2, siGNAS and siNoggin using poly(ß-amino esters) or lipid-like molecules. A total of 15 groups were evaluated by varying DNA doses, timing of treatment, and combinations of signals. All groups were cultured in osteogenic medium for up to 37 days, and outcomes were measured using gene expression, biochemical assays, and histology. RESULTS: Biomaterials-mediated gene delivery led to a dose-dependent up-regulation of BMP2 and significant gene silencing of GNAS and Noggin in hADSCs. BMP2 alone slightly up-regulates osteogenic marker expression in hADSCs. In contrast, co-delivery of BMP2 and siGNAS or siNoggin significantly accelerates the hADSC differentiation towards osteogenic differentiation, with marked increase in bone marker expression and mineralization. CONCLUSIONS: We report a combinatorial platform for identifying synergistic interactions among multiple genetic signals associated with osteogenic differentiation of hADSCs. Our results suggest that inductive or suppressive genetic switches interact in a complex manner, and highlight the promise of combinatorial approaches towards rapidly identifying optimal signals for promoting desired stem cell differentiation.

Concentration of mammalian genomic DNA using two-phase aqueous micellar systems.

The concentration of biomarkers, such as DNA, prior to a subsequent detection step may facilitate the early detection of cancer, which could significantly increase chances for survival. In this study, the partitioning behavior of mammalian genomic DNA fragments in a two-phase aqueous micellar system was investigated using both experiment and theory. The micellar system was generated using the nonionic surfactant Triton X-114 and phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Partition coefficients were measured under a variety of conditions and compared with our theoretical predictions. With this comparison, we demonstrated that the partitioning behavior of DNA fragments in this system is primarily driven by repulsive, steric, excluded-volume interactions that operate between the micelles and the DNA fragments, but is limited by the entrainment of micelle-poor, DNA-rich domains in the macroscopic micelle-rich phase. Furthermore, the volume ratio, that is, the volume of the top, micelle-poor phase divided by that of the bottom, micelle-rich phase, was manipulated to concentrate DNA fragments in the top phase. Specifically, by decreasing the volume ratio from 1 to 1/10, we demonstrated proof-of-principle that the concentration of DNA fragments in the top phase could be increased two- to nine-fold in a predictive manner.